English Grammar : English Grammar

ACHARYA ANGAD CHAUPAL RAJENDRA SARSWATI SHISHU MANDIR BIRAUL .

English Grammar Noun Rules

A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place or thing. There are five kinds of Noun–

Proper Noun
Common Noun
Collective Noun
Abstract Noun
Material Noun.

Following are certain rules of grammar regarding nouns that would be useful in a competitive exams.

Proper nouns are sometimes used as common nouns

For example :

Amitabh is Gandhiji of our class. (Incorrect)
Amitabh is the Gandhiji of our class. (Correct)

Here Gandhiji does not mean Mahatma Gandhi. The word here stands for the possessor of the qualities that Gandhiji is most known for truth and non-violence. Thus Gandhiji is being used as a metaphorical common noun. Some nouns have the same form both in singular as well as in plural.

Following are rules regarding the number of the noun

For example:

Deer was caught
Deer were caught.

Here, the singular and plural form of the noun Deer is same. Like Deer there are other nouns that have the same form in singular as well as plural form.
For example: sheep, deer, apparatus, species, series, hundred, dozen, hair etc. Preceding adjectives and articles decide whether the word is used in the singular form or plural form.
For example:

He paid eight hundred rupees for this pair of shoes.
India again lost the series.

Nouns denoting large numbers are used both in singular and plural form

For example:

a) Three hundred people attended the function.
b) Hundreds of people attended the party.

In sentence a), ‘hundred’ is preceded by number ‘three’. So ‘hundred’ will take no plural form. Word ‘three hundred’ indicates plurality. But in sentence b), ‘hundred’ is not preceded by any number. So to indicate plurality, we will write ‘hundreds’.
So, rule is that when words like hundred, dozen, thousand, pair, score are not preceded by any word denoting number then they take the plural form. Otherwise not.
Consider some more examples :

a) Coca-Cola paid lakhs of rupees to Aamir Khan for promoting their product.
b) I brought two dozen bananas.

Tell which sentence is correct?

1. Which sentence is correct?

a) Since long no news has been heard.
b) Since long no news have been heard.

Sentence a) is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as singular though they look like plural nouns. That’s why we should never use the ‘plural verb with these words.
Other similar words are politics, mathematics, physics, gallows, means, billiards, ethics, summons, innings.
For example :

a) Politics is not my cup of tea.
b) I received summons.
c) Sachin once again played a superb innings

2. Which sentence is correct?

a) The spectacles that you are wearing are really nice.
b) The spectacles that you are wearing is really nice.

Sentence a) is correct. The reason being that some noun words are always used in the plural form.
For example : trousers, arms, drawers, assets, scales, alms, thanks, cards; ashes, riches, premises, scissors, credentials, proceeds.

3. Which sentence is correct?

a) The cattle was grazing in the field.
b) The cattle were grazing in the field.

Sentence b) is correct . The reason being that some nouns are always used as plurals though they look like singular. Other nouns like this are public; people, folk, mankind, poultry, sheep, and police. Gentry, peasantry, bulk, majority.
For example:

a) The majority are with the leader.
b) Police, though late, have come.
c) Public wants results.

4. Which sentence is correct?

a) This project will lead to lots of expenditures
b) This project will lead to lots of expenditure.

Sentence b) is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as singular. Preceding adjectives or the verb form indicates the singularity or plurality. Other nouns are expenditure, furniture, information, machinery, issue, offspring, alphabet, scenery, poetry.
For example :

a) All the furniture was bought last year.
b) All the Information was given to him.

Meaning of some nouns in plural form is very different from the meaning of nouns in singular form. Hence, that form should be used which will convey the right meaning.

For example:

a) I opened the letter and read its contents.
b) Her mouth was fixed in a smile of pure content.
c) The conflict between good and evil is ages old.
d) We must produce goods at competitive prices.
e) Delhites breathe the most polluted air in the world.
f) She was just putting on airs when she came to visit us/me.
g) We should renounce the use of force to settle our dispute.
h) Families of people who died as a result of services in the forces should not be ignored.
i) I was very excited on my return to my home village.
j) Early returns in the ballot indicate majority for opposition.

Other nouns having different meanings in the singular and plural form are:

Singular with meaning	Plural with meaning
Advice – counsel	Advises – information
Respect – regard	Respects – compliments
Compass – extent	Compasses – instrument or range
Custom – habit	Customs – duties levied on
Ground – Earth	Grounds – reasons
Iron – metal	Irons – fetters made of iron
Mean – average	Means – way or method
Respect – regard	Respects – polite greetings
Colour – hue	Colours – appearance
Physic – medicine	Physics – natural science

Please go through the following singulars and plurals as plural forms are commonly known but their singular forms are not commonly known.

Singular Form	Plural form
Agendum	Agenda
Alumnus	Alumni
Index	Indices
Phenomenon	Phenomena
Criterion	Criteria
Radius	Radii
Formula	Formulae
Memorandum	Memoranda

Some noun words have two plurals with different meanings. So that plural form should be selected which will convey the right meaning.

For example:

a) I have one brother and one sister (meaning- sons of the same parents).
b) Why should only select brethren be allowed to attend the meeting? (meaning – members of same society, organisation)
c) I took off my shoes and clothes (meaning- things that people wear).
d) Cotton, Nylon, Silk are different kinds of cloths (meaning- kinds or pieces of cloth).

Other nouns having two plurals with different meanings are.
Singular Plural with different meaning

Die Dies – stamps Dice – small cubes used in games
Genius Geniuses-persons of great talent Genie – spirit
Quarter Quarter – fourth part Quarter(s) – lodging
Manner Manner – Method Manners – Correct behaviour
Pain Pain – Suffering Pains – Careful efforts
Spectacle Spectacle – sight Spectacles – eye-glasses
Penny Pence-indicate amount of money Pennies number of coins

Following are rules regarding gender of the noun:

Collective nouns, even when they denote living beings, are considered to be of the neuter gender.

For example :

a) Shahrukh Khan had a herd of cows. He kept a herdsman to look after her.
b) Shahrukh Khan had a herd of cows. He kept a herdsman to look after it.

Sentence b) is correct. Though herd consists of cows (females), herd is not a feminine noun as it a collective noun.

Young children and the lower animals are also referred to as of the neuter gender.

For example:

a) The baby loves his toys. (Incorrect)
b) The baby loves its toys. (correct)
c) The mouse lost his tail when the cat pounced on him. (Incorrect)

We are often uncertain regarding the gender of the animals. The mouse here may be a male or a female. So, English language prefers the easy way out: treat it as of the neuter gender.

When objects without life are personified they are considered of:

The masculine gender if the object is remarkable for strength and violence. Ex. Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death etc.
The feminine gender if the object is remarkable for beauty, gentleness and gracefulness. Ex: Earth, Moon, Spring, Nature, Mercy etc.

For example:

a) The Sun came from behind the clouds and with her brilliance tore the veil of darkness. (Incorrect)
b) The Sun came from behind the clouds and with his brilliance tore the veil of darkness. (Correct)

Convention does not see brilliance as a womanly quality, but a manly one.

a) Nature offers his lap to him that seeks it. (Incorrect)
b) Nature offers her lap to him that seeks it. (Correct)

The offering of a lap is usually the mother’s role. Hence, Nature here should be treated as a feminine noun. Tell which sentence is correct.

a) The earth goes round the sun in 365Vs days. Can you calculate her speed?
b) The earth goes round the sun in 365Vs days. Can you calculate its speed?

Sentence b is correct. The error being made here is that personification is being brought where it does not exist. In the above statement the earth is being treated as a body (a thing), not a person. The scientist here is not concerned with the womanly qualities of the planet. So, neuter gender should be applied.

Rules regarding apostrophe S (’s)

1. Singular noun: ’s is added after the word.

2. Singular noun: Only an apostrophe is added when there are too many hissing sounds.

For example: Moses’ laws, for goodness’ sake, For justice’ sake.

3. Plural nouns ending in s like boys, cows: only’ is added after the word

4. Plural nouns not ending in s like men, children: ’s is added after the word.

5. ’S is added primarily after the living things and personified objects.

For example: Governor’s bodyguard, horse’s head, Nature’s law, Fortune’s favourite.

6. ’S is not used with inanimate or non-living things.

For example: leg of the table, cover of the book.

7. But nouns that denote time, distance or weight, ’s is used.

For example: a stone’s throw, in a year’s time, the earth’s surface.

8. Some other common phrases where ’s is used are to his heart’s content, at his wit’s end, for goodness’ sake, out of harm’s way.

9. When a noun consists of several words, the possessive sign is attached only to the last word.

For example:

a) The Queen’s of England reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Incorrect)
b) The Queen of England’s reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Correct)

Do not be mistaken that since it is the Queen’s reaction, the ’s should come after queen. You might think that putting it after England would make the reaction England’s and not the Queen’s. This is shortsightedness. Do not see Queen and England in isolation, Queen of England is one whole unit and the apostrophe should come at its end.

10. When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

For example:

a) I am going to Stephen Hawking’s the scientist’s country. (Incorrect)
b) I am going to Stephen Hawking the scientist’s country. (Correct)

11. When two or more nouns show joint possession, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

For example:

a) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachclaanji is Amitahh’s and Ajitabh’s father. (Incoreect)
b) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh and Ajitabh’s father. (Correct)

12. When two or more nouns show separate possession, the possessive sign is put with both.

For example.

a) The audience listened to Javed and Vajpayee’s poems. (Incorrect)
b) The audience listened to Javed’s and Vajpayee’s poems. (Correct)

Angad ji

English Grammar Pronoun Rules

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.Now consider the following cases:
Since a pronoun is used instead of a Noun, it must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun for which it stands. For example: Those beggars are idle. They refuse to work for their living.
Please consider the following two sentences.

a) After a few hearings the jury gave its verdict. (Pronoun ‘its is used in place of noun jury’).
b) The jury were divided in their opinions. (Pronoun ‘their’ is used in place of noun ‘jury’)

You must be wondering why different pronoun its’ and ‘their’ is used in place of the same noun ‘jury’ The reason is when a pronoun stands for a collective noun it must be in the singular number and neutral gender. (Sentence a). But when collective noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole, the pronoun standing for it must be of the plural number. In sentence b, it is clear that members of the jury are not behaving as whole.
For example:

a) The committee is reconsidering its decision.
b) The committee decided the matter without leaving their seats.

Pronouns in sentences found by conjunction

When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, the pronoun used for them must be plural.

For example: Rama and Hari work hard. Their teachers praise them.
But when two Singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the pronoun should be singular.
For example: The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his duty. Here the same person is acting as Secretary and Treasurer. That’s why singular pronoun is used.

When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, then the pronoun must be singular

For example: Every soldier and every sailor was in his place.

When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘or’, ‘either…or’, ‘neither…nor’, the pronoun is generally singular.

For example:

a) Neither Abdul nor Rehman has done his lessons.
b) Either Rama or Hari must help his friend.

When a plural and a singular noun are joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, the pronoun must be in the plural

For example: Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.

When two things which have been already mentioned are referred to, ‘this’ refers to the thing last mentioned and ‘that to the thing first mentioned.

For example: Alcohol and Tobacco are both injurious: this perhaps less than that.

Rules regarding personal pronouns

Which sentence is correct?

a) The presents are for you and me.
b) The presents are for you and I.

Sentence a) is correct. Pronoun has to agree with the case. Here it is the objective case. So, ‘me’ should be used instead of ‘I’.
For example: My uncle asked my brother and me to dinner.
Which sentence is correct?

a) He loves you more than I.
b) He loves you more than me.

Sentence a) is correct ‘Than’ is a conjunction joining clauses. And the case of the pronoun to be used may be found by writing the clauses in full. So, in sentence a.) two clauses joined by ‘than’ are ‘He loves you more’ and ‘I love you’. Being a subjective case, ‘I’ should be used.
For example:

a) He is taller than I (am).
b) He loves you more than (he loves) me.

When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronouns of different persons, it must be of the first person plural in preference to the second and of the second person plural in preference to the third.

For example :

a) You and I, husband and wife, have to look after your home. (Incorrect)
b) You and I, husband and wife, have to look after our home. (Correct)

Now, common sense tells us that if we are a couple, wife and husband, the feeling of togetherness is expressed by our home, not your home. And so does grammar Rule: 123. 1stands for first person, 2 for second person and 3 for third person. The order of precedence is: 1 before 2 and 2 before 3. In the given example, we have 2 and 1. So 1 will apply; that is, first person. The number, of course, will be plural. Let us take another example.

a) You and Hari have done their duty, (Incorrect)
b) You and Hari have done your duty. (Correct)

Applying 123 rule. You = 2 and Hari =3.
So, 2. Second person plural gives ‘your’. Similarly, when all the three persons are taken into account, it has to be I; that is, first person plural.

a) You, he and I have not forgotten your roots. (Incorrect)
b) You, he and I have not forgotten our roots. (Correct)

***Each, either* and *neither*** are always singular and are followed by the verb in the singular

For example :

a) Neither of the accusations is true.
b) Each boy took his turn.
c) Each of the lady performs her duty well.

Please consider the following sentences.

a) This is the boy. He works hard. (He subjective case)
b) This is the boy. His exercise is done well. (His is possessive case)
c) This is the boy. All praise him. (Him is objective case)

An apostrophe is never used in ‘its’, ‘yours’ and ‘theirs’.

The complement of the verb be, when it is expressed by a pronoun should be in the nominative form.

For example :

a) It was he (not him),
b) It is I (not me) that gave the prizes away.
c) It might have been he (not him).

The case of a pronoun following than or as is determined by mentally supplying the verb.

For example :

a) He is taller than I (am).
b) I like you better than he (likes you).
c) They gave him as much as (they gave) me.

A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender.

For example :

a) All passengers must show their (not his) tickets.
b) I am not one of those who believe everything they (not I) hear

Rules regarding demonstrative pronouns

Uses of THAT

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree.

For example.

a) This is the best that we can do.
b) He is the best speaker that we ever heard.

2. After the words all, same, any, none, nothing, only.

For example:

a) Man is the only animal that can talk.
b) He is the same man that he has been.

3. After two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other denoting an animal or a thing.

For example : The man and his pet that met with an accident yesterday died today.

What and That refer to persons as well as things.

Rules regarding relative pronouns

On combining each of the above pairs into one sentence

a) This is the boy who works hard (Who in place of He)
b) This is the boy whose exercise is done well. (whose in place of His)
c) This is the boy whom all praise. (Whom in place of Him)

The above sentences show when to use who, whose and whom. Who is the subjective case, Whose the possessive case and Whom the objective case.

Who is used for persons only. It may refer to a singular or plural noun.

For example:

a) He who hesitates is lost.
b) Blessed is he who has found his work.

Whose can be used for persons as well as things without life also.

For example:

a) This is the hotel whose owner is a criminal.
b) This is the person whose will power is extraordinary.

Which is used for inanimate things and animals. Which is used for both singular as well as plural noun.

For example :

a) I have found the book which I had lost last week.
b) The horse, which won the race yesterday, is my favourite.

When ‘which’ is used for selection, it may refer to a person as well as things.

For example :

a) Which of the packets is yours?
b) Which of the boy has not done his homework?

Who, Which, Whom, That, Whose should be placed as near to the antecedent as possible.

For example :

a) I with my family reside in Delhi, which consists of my wife and parents.

This sentence is wrong as which relates to ‘my’ family’. So ‘which’ should be placed as near to family’ as possible. So, the correct sentence is

b) I with my family which consists of my wife and parents, reside in Delhi.

Who is used In the nominative cases and whom in the objective cases.

For example :

a) There is Mr. Dutt, who (not whom) they say is the best painter in the town.
b) The Student, whom (not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the first prize.

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree in number and person with the antecedent of the relative.

For example :

a) This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has) appeared this year. (Here, antecedent of relative pronoun that is novels and not one)
b) This is the only one of his poems that is (not are) worth reading. (Here the antecedent of that is one and not poems).

Kindly note the difference between sentence a and b

Other useful rules

None is used in the singular or plural as the sense may require.

For example:

a) Each boy was accompanied by an adult but there were none, with the orphan (Incorrect)
b) Each boy was accompanied by an adult but there was none with the orphan. (Correct)
c) I am used to many guests everyday but there was none today. (Incorrect)
d) I am used to many guests everyday but there were none today. (Correct)

When ‘one’ is used as pronoun, its possessive form ‘one’s’ should follow instead of his, her etc.

For example : One must put one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.

With let objective case of the pronoun is used.

For example: let you and me do it.

If a pronoun has two antecedents, it should agree with the nearer one.

For example:

a) I hold in high esteem everything and everybody who reminds me of my failures.
b) I hold in high esteem everybody and everything, which reminds me of my failures.

In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone, each etc., the pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context.

For example.

a) I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his studies.
b) I shall be glad to help everyone of my girls in her studies.
c) I shall be glad to help everyone of my students in his studies.

But when gender is not determined, the pronoun of the masculine gender is used as in sentence c.

The pronoun one should be used throughout, if used at all.

For example:

a) One must use one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
b) One should be careful about what one says.

Plural is commonly used with none.

For example.

a) None of his poems are well known.
b) None of these words are now current.

Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.

For example: She was taller than anyone of her five sisters.

English Grammar Adjective Rules

Adjectives are the words that describe the qualities of a noun or pronoun in a given sentence. Consider the following:
Tell which sentence is correct

a) Flowers are plucked freshly.
b) Flowers are plucked fresh.

Sentence b) is correct as, adjective is correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject rather than verb is to be expressed. Here, fresh describes the word Flowers (a noun) and not plucked (a verb).

Rules Regarding Demonstrative Adjective

This and that are used with the singular nouns and these and those are used with plural nouns

For example:

a) This mango is sour.
b) These mangoes are sour.
c) That boy is industrious
d) Those boys are industrious.

This and these indicate something near to the speaker while that and those indicate something distant to the speaker.

For example:

a) This girl sings.
b) These girls sing.
c) That girl sings.
d) Those girls sing.

Rules regarding Distributive Adjectives

Each is used when reference is made to the individuals forming any group. Each is also used when the number of the group is limited and definite.

For example:

a) I was in Shimla for five days and it rained each day.

Every is used when reference is made to total group or when the number is indefinite.
For example:

a) Every seat was taken.
b) I go for a movie every week.
c) Leap year falls in every fourth year.

Each, either, neither and every are always followed by the singular noun.

For example:

a) Each boy must take his turn.
b) Every word of it is false.
c) Neither accusation is true.

Rules Regarding Adjectives of Quantity

Some is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree.

For example:

I shall buy some bananas.

Any is used in the negative or interrogative sentences to express quantity or degree.
For example:

a) I shall not buy any bananas.
b) Have you bought any bananas?

But some is an exception to the above rule. Some is used in interrogative sentences, which are commands or requests.
For example:

Will you please lend me some money?

Few is used for countable objects and little is used for non-countable objects. Little means not much. So use of the word little has a negative meaning.

For example:

a) There is little hope of his recovery.
b) He has little appreciation of hard work.

A little means some though not much. So, use of a little has a positive meaning.
For example:

a) There is a little hope of his recovery.
b) He has a little appreciation of hard work.

The little means not much but all there is.
For example:

a) The little information he had was quite reliable.
b) The little knowledge of management he possessed was not sufficient to stand him in good stead.

Few mean not many. So use of the word few has a negative meaning.

For example:

Few men are free from faults.

A few means some. So use of ‘a few’ has a positive meaning.
For example:

A few men are free from faults.

The few mean not many, but all there are.
For example:

The few remarks that he made were very good.

Only uncountable nouns follow much, little, some, enough, sufficient and whole.

For example:

a) I ate some rice.
b) There are not enough spoons.

Rules Regarding Interrogative Adjectives

What is used in the general sense and which is used in a selective sense.

For example:

a) Which of you haven’t brought your book?
b) What manner of man is he?

Rules Regarding Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives

The comparative form ending in ‘er’ is used when we are comparing one quality in two persons.

For example:

Anjali is wiser than Rahul.

But if we wish to compare two qualities in the same person then the comparative form ending in ‘er’ is not used.
For example:

Anjali is wise than brave.

When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison must exclude the former.

For example:

a) Delhi is bigger than any other city in India. If we say
b) Delhi is bigger than any city in India. Then we are saying Delhi is bigger than Delhi, as any city in India includes Delhi also. And this is obviously wrong.

In a comparison by means of a superlative the latter term should include the former.

For example:

a) Delhi is the biggest of all cities in India.
b) Of all men he is the strongest.

Kindly note the difference in this and previous rule.

Later and latest refer to rime.

For example:

a) He came later than I expected.
b) This is the latest news.

Latter and last refer to position.
For example:

a) The last player could not bat as he was injured.
b) The latter chapters are very interesting.

Latter is used when there are two only, last when there are more than two.
For example:

a) Of Manohar, Syam and Joshi, the latter is a driver. (Incorrect)
b) Of Manohor, Syam and Joshi, the last is a driver. (Correct)

Elder and eldest are used only of persons (usually members of the same family).

For example:

a) My elder sister is doing MBA from IIM Ahemdabad
b) My eldest brother is getting married today.

Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.
For example:

a) This is the oldest building in the city.
b) Anthony is the oldest boy in the class.

Further means more distant or advanced whereas farther is a variation of further and means at a distance – both the words can be used to indicate physical distance.

For example:

a) No one discussed the topic further.
b) Calcutta is farther from the equator than Colombo.

The comparative degree is generally followed by ‘than’, but comparative adjectives ending in is or are followed by the preposition ‘to’.

For example:

a) Akshay is inferior to Aamir in intelligence.
b) Aamir is superior to Akshay in intelligence.
c) He is junior to me.
d) Who was captain prior to Azhar ?

Adjectives such as square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique do not admit of different degrees. So they cannot be compared. Thus strictly speaking we cannot say that a thing is more square more round or more perfect. But sometimes we do make exceptions to this rule.

For example:

This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.

When the comparative form is used to express selection from two of the same kind or class, it is followed by ‘of’ and preceded by ‘the’.

For example:

Ramesh is stronger of the two boys.

When than or as is followed by the third person pronoun, the verb is to be repeated.

For example:

Ram is not as clever as his brother is.

When than or as is followed by first or second person pronoun, the verb can be omitted.

For example:

He is more intelligent than you.

In comparing two things or classes of things the comparative should be used.

For example:

a) Of two evils choose the lesser (not least).
b) Which is the better (not best) of the two?

A very common form of error is exemplified in the following sentence.

a) The population of London is greater than any town in India.
b) The population of London is greater than that of any town in India.

Sentence b is correct as the comparison is between the population of London and the population of any town in India.

Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided.

For example:

a) Seldom had the little town seen a more costlier funeral. (Wrong)
b) Seldom had the little town seen a costlier funeral. (Right)
c) Seldom had the little town seen a more costly funeral. (Right)

Preferable has the force of comparative and is followed by to. Phrase ‘more preferable’ should not be used.

For example:

a) Coffee is more preferable to tea. (Wrong)
b) Coffee is preferable to tea. (Right)

Less refers to quantity whereas fewer refers to number.

For example:

a) No fewer than fifty miners were killed in the explosion.
b) We do not sell less than ten kg of tea.

Certain adjectives do not really admit of comparison because their meaning is already superlative. Such words are unique, Ideal, perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief, full, square, round. Therefore phrases like most unique, more round, fullest, chiefest etc. are wrong.
If there is a gradual increase it is generally expressed with two comparatives and not with positives.

For example:

a) It grew hot and hot. (Incorrect)
b) It grew hotter and hotter. (Correct)

Other Common Rules

‘Verbal’ means ‘of or pertaining to words’ whereas ‘oral’ means ‘delivered by word of mouth or not written’. Hence the opposite of written is oral, not verbal.

For example:

a) His written statement differs in several important respects from his oral (not verbal) statement
b) The boy was sent with an verbal message to the doctor.

‘Common’ means shared by all concerned. If a fact is a common Knowledge, it means the knowledge of the fact is shared by all. Everyone knows about it. ‘Mutual’ means in relation to each other. If you and I are mutual admirers, it means 1 admire you and you admire me. We might also have a common admirer who admires both of us.

a) We started smoking on the advice of a mutual friend. (Incorrect)
b) We started smoking on the advice of a common friend (Correct)

It is apparent that there are two or more than two of us. Apart from us, there is a person (friend). Since he is a friend to all of us, this friend is being shared by all of us. So, he is a common friend. Now, look at this sentence.
For example:

We started smoking on mutual advice.

It means I advised, you to smoke and you advised me to smoke.

Other Common Errors

a) These Kind of questions is often asked in the examinations. (Incorrect)
b) This kind of question is often asked in the examinations. (Correct)
c) He is as good if not better than his brother. (Incorrect)
d) He is as good as if not better than his brother. (Correct)
e) The future do not hold much for you. (Incorrect)
f) The future does not hold much for you. (Correct)

English Grammar Verb Rules

A verb is a “doing word”. It expresses the carrying out of an action. With an active verb this action is carried out by the subject.
Examples:

It stands. I am.
He adjudicates between the parties concerned.
Alfred burnt the cakes.

With a passive verb the action is carried out upon the subject:
Examples:

The cakes were burnt by Alfred.
The Bible is read in many languages.

Important Rules

Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘and’ usually take a verb in the plural.

For example: Hari and Rama are there.

If two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular.

For example: My friend and benefactor has come.

If two subjects together express one idea, the verb may be in the singular.

For example: The horse and the carriage is at the door.

Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’, either… or, neither…nor take a verb in the singular.

For example: Neither he nor I was there.
But when subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different numbers, the verb must be plural, and the plural subject must be placed next to the verb.
For example: Rama and his brothers have done this.
When the subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different persons, the verb agrees in person with the nearest one.
For example:

a) Either he or I am mistaken.
b) Neither you nor he is to blame.

When words are joined to a singular subject by ‘with’, ‘together with’, ‘in addition to’, ‘as well as’, then also number of the verb remains singular.

For example: The Chief with all his men, was massacred.

Following examples exemplify the common mistakes committed

a) His diet was abstemious, his prayers long and fervent. (Wrong as subjects are not in the same number.)
b) His diet was abstemious, his prayers were long and fervent. (Right)
c) He never has and never will, take such strong measures. (Wrong)
d) He never has taken, and never will take, such strong measures. (Right)
e) Ten new members have been enrolled and seven resigned (Wrong)
f) Ten new members have been enrolled and seven have resigned. (Right)
g) Being a very hot day, I remained in my tent. (Wrong as participle being is referring to none)
h) It being a very hot day, I remained in my tent. (Right)
i) Sitting on the gate, a scorpion stung him. (Wrong as participle sitting is not referring to any word)
j) While he was sitting on the gate, a scorpion stung him (Right)

The verb lay (lay, laid, laid) is transitive and is always followed by an object. The-: verb lie (lie, lay, Lain) is intransitive and cannot have an object.

For example:

a) Lay the child to sleep.
b) Let me lie here.
c) I laid the book on the table.

Agreement of the subject with the verb

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Often due to “Error of Proximity”: the verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of with its proper subject.

For example:

a) The quality of the mangoes were not good. (Wrong since subject is quality, a singular and not mangoes.)
b) The quality of the mangoes was not good (Right).
c) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars are far beyond the common. (Wrong)
d) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars is far beyond the common. (Right)

Verb should be singular even when some words are joined to a singular subject by ‘with’, ‘as well as’ etc,

For example:

a) The chairman, with the directors, is to be present.
b) Silver, as well as cotton, has fallen in prices.

Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’ require singular verb.

For example:

a) No nook or corner was left unexplored.
b) Our happiness or our sorrow is largely due to our own actions.

If two singular nouns express one idea, the verb is in the singular.

For example:

a) Bread and Butter are essential for one’s life. (Incorrect)
b) Bread and Butter is essential for one’s life. (Correct)

Either, neither, each, everyone, many a must be followed by a singular verb.

For example:

a) Neither of the two men was very strong.
b) Every one of the prisons is full.
c) Many a man has done so.
d) He asked whether either of the applicants was suitable.

When the subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different numbers, the verb must be plural, and the plural must be placed next to the verb.

For example:

a) Neither Rekha nor her fiends was present at the party. (Incorrect)
b) Neither Rekha nor her friends were present at the party. (Correct)

When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singular.

For example:

a) Five hours are too short a time to judge one’s character. (Incorrect)
b) Five hours is too short a time to judge one’s character. (Correct)

This is so because five hours is considered as one chunk.

Two nouns qualified by each or every, even though connected by ‘and’ require a singular verb.

For example: Every boy and every girl was given a packet of sweets.

‘None’ though singular commonly takes a plural verb.

For example: None are so deaf as those who will not hear.

Tell which sentence is correct.

a) Put in to bat first, a huge total was expected from India.
b) Put in to bat first, India was expected to pile up a huge total.

Now: who has been put in to bat first? A huge total of India? Common sense tells us it must be India. But the sentence a, as it stands, appears otherwise. So, sentence b is correct.

a) Being a rainy day, I decided to take my umbrella.
b) It being a rainy day, I decided to take my umbrella.

The sentence a, as it stands, gives us the impression that being a rainy day qualifies I. This is simply not true. I am not a rainy day. So sentence b is correct.

When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singular.

For example:

a) One hundred paise is equal to one rupee.
b) Six miles is a long distance.
c) Fifty thousand rupees is a large sum.

English Grammar Adverb Rules

An adverb modifies a verb; it indicates how the action of a verb is carried out.
Examples:

The house stands firmly.
She speaks well.
He dresses beautifully.

It can also modify an adjective or another adverb.
Examples:

The house is very firm.
She answered most considerately.

Important Rules

Adverbs of manner such as well, fast, quickly, carefully, calmly etc. are placed after the verb if there is no object and after the object if there is one.

For example: :

a) It is raining heavily.
b) She speaks English well.

Adverbs of time such as always, often sometimes, never, generally, ever merely, seldom etc. are placed before the verb they qualify.

For example :

a) I seldom meet him. (Right)
b) I meet him seldom. (Wrong)

Adverbs of degree refer to words which show “how much”, “in what degree” or “to what extent” does the action takes place.

Meaning of too is more than enough. Too denotes some kind of excess.

For example:

a) He is too weak to walk.
b) It is never too late.

Hence, use of very in place of too is wrong.
For example: Instead of saying that

a) Cow’s milk is too nutritious We should say that
b) Cow’s milk is very nutritious.

Enough is placed after the word it qualifies.

For example: Everyone should be strong enough to support one’s family.
It will be wrong if we write ‘Everyone should be enough strong to support one’s family’.

Much is used with past participles.

For example:

a) He was much disgusted with his life.
b) The news was much surprising.

Very is used with present participles.
For example:

a) He is very disgusted with his life.
b) The news is very surpising.

When very and much are used to qualify superlative form of adjectives/adverbs, they should be put before the word ‘very’ and after the word ‘much’.

For example:

a) Rim is the very best boy in his class.
b) Rim is much the best boy in his class.

Adverbs of Affirmation or Negation refer to words that assert the action emphatically.
Consider these examples :

a) He certainly was a winner among them
b) Luckily he survived the crash

No sooner should always be followed by than.

For example:

a) No sooner I saw him I trembled with fear. (Wrong)
b) No sooner did I see him than I trembled with fear. (Right)

Not should not be used with the words, which have negative meaning if we want the sentence to be negative.

For example:

a) I received no letter neither from him nor from her. (Wrong)
b) I received letter neither from him nor from her. (Right)

Of course is used to denote a natural consequence. It should not be used in place of certainly, undoubtedly.

For example:

a) Of course he is the best player. (Wrong)
b) He is certainly the best player. (Right)

Following are Common Rules of Adverbs in General

Only is used before the word it qualifies.

For example:

a) Only I spoke to him.
b) I only spoke to him.
c) I spoke to him only.

Else is followed by but and not by than.

For example: It is nothing else but hypocrisy.

‘As’ is often used in a sentence though there is no need for it.

For example:

a) He is elected as the President. (Wrong)
b) He is elected President. (Right)

‘Perhaps’ means possibly whereas ‘probably’ means most likely.

For example:

a) Where is Govinda? Perhaps he is not here. (Wrong)
b) Where is Govinda? Probably he is not here. (Right)

English Grammar Preposition Rules

A preposition connects a noun (with or without an article) or a pronoun to some other word. Prepositions are the “little words of English”.
Examples:

It stands on hills.
The swagman jumped into the billabong.
England is over the sea.
She told the good news to him.

In is used with the names or countries and large towns; at is used when speaking of small towns and villages.

For example:

a) I live in Delhi.
b) I live at Mehrauli in Delhi.

In and at are used in speaking of things at rest; to and into are used in speaking of things in motion.

For example:

a) He is in bed.
b) He is at the top of the class.
c) He ran to school
d) He jumped into the river.
e) The snake crawled into its hole.

On is often used in speaking of things at rest; and upon for the things in motion.

For example:

a) He sat on a chair.
b) The cat sprang upon the table.

Till is used of time and to is used for place.

For example:

a) He slept till eight o’clock.
b) He walked to the end of the street.

With often denotes the instrument and by the agent.

For example:

a) He killed two birds with one shot.
b) He was stabbed by a lunatic with a dagger.

Since is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time and is preceded by a verb in the perfect tense.

For example:

a) I have eaten nothing since yesterday.
b) He has been ill since Monday last.

From is also used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time but is used with non-perfect tense.
For example:

a) I commenced work from 1st January.
b) He will join school from tomorrow.

For is used with a period of time.
For example:

a) He has been ill for five days.
b) He lived in Bombay for five years.

Use of in before a period of time means at the end of period, but use of within before a period of time means before the end of period.

For example:

a) I shall return in an hour. (means I shall return at the end of an hour).
b) I shall return within an hour. (means I shall return before the end of an hour).

Scarcely should be followed by when and not by but.

For example: Scarcely had he gone, when (not than) a policeman knocked at the door.

The phrase ‘seldom or ever’ is wrong ‘Seldom or never’ is right.

For example: Such goods are made for export, and are seldom or never used in this country.

Examine the following sentence:

a) This is as good, if not better than that. (Wrong)
b) This is as good as, if not better than, that. (Right)
c) This is as good as that, if not better. (Right)

Beside means at the side of while besides means in addition to.

For example:

a) Beside the ungathered rice he lay.
b) Besides being fined, he was sentenced to a term of imprisonment.

Above and Below merely denote position While over and under also carry a sense of covering or movement.

a) The bird flew above the lake. (Wrong)
b) The bird flew over the lake. (Correct)

Here over is used to denote upward position and movement also.

During is used when reference is made to the time within which something happens. For is used when we are talking about how long something lasts.

a) There are few incidents of irregularity for the emergency years. (Wrong)
b) There are few incidents of irregularity during the emergency years. (Correct)

Compare is followed by to when it shows that two things are alike. It is followed by with when we look at the ways in which two things are like and unlike each other.

For example:

a) Sanath Jayasuria’s balling may be compared to the sales of a useful book, they score right from the beginning. (Wrong)
b) Sanath Jayasuria’s batting may be compared with the sales of a useful book; they score right from the beginning. (Right)
c) If we compare Delhi University with the regional ones, we find the former to be much more efficient. (Wrong)
d) If we compare Delhi University to the regional ones, we find the former to be much more efficient. (Right)

English Grammar Conjunction Rules

Some conjunctions are coordinating (i.e. joining elements of the same kind) like ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’, etc.
Examples:

It stands on the hill and overlooks the plain.
I say this but she says that.

Other conjunctions are subordinating (i.e. joining a subordinate clause to a main clause) like when, because, since, as
Examples:

Since it stands on the hill it overlooks the plain.
Although I say this she says that.
When Gawain saw the Green Knight he did not show that he was afraid.

Uses of Conjunction

Since

Since as conjunction means:

A) From and after the time when:

For example:

a) Many things have happened since I left the school.
b) I have never seen him since that unfortunate event happened.

B) Since that

For example :

a) Since you wish it, it shall be done.
b) Since that is the case, I shall excuse you.

Or

Or is used:

A) To introduce an alternative.

For example:

a) You must work or starve.
b) You may take this book or that one.
c) He may study law or medicine or engineering or he may enter into trade.

B) To introduce an alternative name or synonym.

For example:
The violin or fiddle has become the leading instrument of the modern orchestra.

C) To mean otherwise.

For example:
We must hasten or night will overtake us.

If

If is used to mean:

A) On the condition or supposition that

For example:

a) If he is here, I shall see him.
b) If that is so, I am content.

B) Admitting that

For example:
If I am blunt, I am at least honest.

C) Whether

For example: I asked him if he would help me.

D) Whenever

For example: If I feel any doubt I enquire.

That

That is used:

A) To express a reason or cause

For example:

a) Not that I loved Caesar less but that I loved Rome more
b) He was annoyed that he was contradicted.

B) To express a purpose and is equivalent to in order that.

For example : He kept quiet that the dispute might cease.

C) To express a consequence, result or effect.

For example: He bled so profusely that he died

Lest

Lest is used to express a negative purpose and is equivalent to ‘in order that… not’, ‘for fear that’.

For example:

a) He lied lest he should be killed.
b) I was alarmed lest we should be wrecked.

While

While is used to mean:

A) During that time, as long as

For example: while there is life there is hope.

B) At the same time that.

For example: While he found fault, he also praised.

Only

Only means except that, but, were it not that:

For example:

a) A ‘very pretty woman, only she squints a little.
b) The day is pleasant, only rather cold.

after, before, as soon as, until

The conjunctions after, before, as soon as, until are not followed by clause in the future tense. Present simple or present perfect tense is used to express a future event.

For example:

a) I will phone you after I arrive here.
b) I will phone you after I have arrived here.

As if

As if used in the sense of as it would be is generally followed by a subject + were + complement.

For example:

a) He loves you as if you were his own child.
b) Sometimes she weeps and sometimes she laughs as if she were mad.

The clause that begins with as if should be put into the past simple tense, if the preceding clause expresses a past action. But if it expresses a past action it should be followed by the past perfect tense.

For example:

a) He behaves as if he were a lord.
b) He behaved as if he had been a lord

as long as

While as long as is used to express time in sense of how long, Until is used to express time in sense of before.

For example:

a) Until you work hard you will improve. (Wrong)
b) As long as you work hard you will improve. (right)
c) He learnt little as long as he was 15 years old. (Wrong)
d) He learnt little until he was 15 years old. (Right)

No sooner

No sooner should be followed by verb + subject and than should begin another clause.

For example:

a) No sooner had I reached the station than the train left.
b) No sooner did the bell ring than all the students rushed in.

as well as

When as well as is used, finite verb should agree in number and person with the first subject.

For example: He as well as us is innocent.

As well as should never be used in place of and if the first subject is preceded by the word ‘both’.

For example:

a) Both Rani as well as Kajol came. (Wrong)
b) Both Rani and Kajol came. (Right)

Because

Because is generally used when the reason is the most important part of a sentence.

For example: Some people like him because he is honest and hard working.
Since is used when the reason is already known or is less important than the chief statement.
For example : Since you refuse to cooperate, I shall have to take legal steps.
For is used when reason given is an afterthought.
For example: The servant must have opened the box, for no one else had the key.
For never comes at the beginning of the sentence and for is always preceded by a comma.

Scarcely

Scarcely should be followed by when and not by than,

a) Scarcely had he arrived than he had to leave again. (Wrong)
b) Scarcely had he arrived when he had to leave again. (Right)

either..or, neither.. nor, not only.. but also, both.. and, whether, or

Conjunctions such as either..or, neither.. nor, not only..but also, both..and, whether, or etc. always join two words or phrases belonging to the same parts of speech.

For example:

a) Either he will ask me or you. (Wrong)
b) He will ask either me or you. (Right)
c) Neither he reads nor write English (Wrong)
d) He neither reads nor writes English. (Right)
e) Either you shall have to go home or stay here. (Wrong)
f) You shall have either to go home or stay here. (Right)

neither.. nor, either.. or

Conjunctions like neither.. nor, either.. or, should be followed by the same part of speech.

For example:

a) He neither agreed to my proposal nor to his. (Wrong)
b) He agreed neither to my proposal nor to his. (Right)

Conjunction is not used before an interrogative adverb or interrogative pronoun in the indirect narration.

For example:

a) He asked me that where I stayed. (Wrong)
b) He asked me where I stayed. (right)

Although

Although goes with yet or a comma in the other clause.

For example:

a) Although Manohar is hardworking but he does not get a job. (Wrong)
b) Although Manohar is hard working, yet he does not get a job. (Right)

Nothing else

Nothing else should be followed by but not by than,

For example:

a) Mr. Bureaucrat! This is nothing else than red-tapism. (Wrong)
b) Mr. Bureaucrat! This is nothing else but red-tapism. (Right)

indeed… but

The correlative conjunctions indeed… but are used to emphasise the contrast between the first and the second parts of the statement.

For example:

a) I am indeed happy with my school but it produces famous men. (Wrong)
b) I am indeed happy with my school but it does not produce famous men. (Right)
c) I am indeed happy with my school that it produces famous men. (Right)

“not only… but also…”

In a “not only … but also…” sentence, the verb should agree with the noun or pronoun mentioned second, that is; the one after ‘but also’, because this is the part being emphasised.

For example:

a) Not only the students but also the teacher were responsible for what happened in the class. (Wrong)
b) Not only the students but also the teacher was responsible for what happened in the class. (Right)

Such … as

Such … as is used to denote a category whereas such … that emphasises the degree of something by mentioning its consequence.

For example:

a) Each member of the alliance agrees to take such action that it deems necessary. (Wrong)
b) Each member of the alliance agrees to take such action as it deems necessary. (Right)

Here “it seems necessary” is not a consequence of “such action”. The sentence wants to imply that the action belongs to the category “as it deems necessary” In other words, what kind of action? Such action as it deems necessary.

a) She looked at him in such distress as he had to look away. (Wrong)
b) She looked at him in such distress that he had to look away. (Right)

Here, “he had to look away” is a consequence of “she looked at him in such distress.” In other words, the degree of the distress of looking at him was such that (not as) he had to look away.

English Grammar Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal Verbs are a particular kind of expression, wherein the verb is made of two or more components. Mostly the combining components are verbs and prepositions. When divided these components will have a meaning of their own but would not suggest anything about the meaning of the phrasal verb. Consider the following sentences.

This sword has been handed down from father to son in the family for many generations.
I have been looking forward to meeting you since long now.
The patient came out of the delirium only when given tranquilizers.
We had almost decided to give up on the search when we made the discovery.

Phrasal verbs are idiomatic expressions and have a particular meaning different from that of the combining verbs and prepositions.

Following are some phrasal verbs with their meanings.

sit in	to attend or take part as a visitor
sit out	to stay till the end of
come round	to accept circumstance and adjust yourself to them.
get on	to manage one’s life
turn out	to have a particular result
turn up	to arrive unexpectedly
show off	to brag or boast
sort out	to successfully deal with a problem
hand in	to give something to someone in authority
sit down	to take a seat
sit up	to rise from a supine position
give in	to yield to some pressure
come forth	to find something
switch on	to start something
turn down	to refuse or reject an offer
turn in	to expose
look into	probe, or investigate a matter
look after	take care of
take off	to remove something
put out	to extinguish
try on	to wear some clothes for first time
turn down	lower the volume
turn on	to start a machine
put in	to invest something (matter or abstract)
look out	be careful of some danger.

Following are some sentences using Phrasal Verbs

Don’t throw away your opportunity to enter this University.
Many people believe in astrology and tarot cards nowadays.
Quickly get in the car, we’re getting late.
You can put forward your point in today’s meeting.
To sit through his speech was very difficult.
I don’t understand why you put up with his insolent behaviour.
I could see through his intentions the first time I met, but kept quiet to give him a chance to reform.
Please, fill in all the necessary information in this form.
I am sure you will not let me down, I’ve full faith in your capacities.
Why are you taking it out on me? I’m not the one responsible for the mishap.

English Grammar Article Rules

Articles are used to indicate whether a noun refers to a specific or a general item. The rules for using articles in English are quite complex, so for students whose first language is not English, when to use an article, and which article to use can cause problems.

What is an article?

There are two types of articles, definite and indefinite. However, in your choice about whether to use an article, or which one to use, you have four possible choices: the, a, an, or no article. ‘a’ and ‘an’ are INDEFINITE ARTICLES ‘the’ is known as the DEFINITE ARTICLE.
Indefinite articles – a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound:

a man
a hen
a university
a European
a one-way street

The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words beginning with a mute h:

an apple
an island
an uncle
an egg
an onion
an hour

or individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:

an L-plate
an MP
an SOS
an ‘x’

a/an is the same for all genders:

a man
a woman
an actor
an actress
a table

Uses of a/an

Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:

I need a visa.
They live in a flat.
He bought an ice-cream.

Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:

A car must be insured
All cars/Any car must be insured.
A child needs love
All children need/Any child needs love.

With a noun complement. This includes names of professions:

It was an earthquake.
She’ll be a dancer.
He is an actor.

In certain expressions of quantity:

a lot of a couple a great many a dozen (but one dozen is also possible)
a great deal of With certain numbers:
a hundred a thousand

Before half when half follows a whole number;

1 ½ kilos = one and a half kilos or
a kilo and a half But ½ kg = half a kilo (no a before half),

Though a + half + noun is sometimes possible:

a half-holiday
a half-portion
a half-share

With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc. a is usual:
a third, a quarter etc.,
But one is also possible. In expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.:

5p a kilo
Re 1 a metre
sixty kilometres an hour
10 p a dozen four times a day (Here a/an = per)

In exclamations before singular, countable nouns:
Such a long queue! What a pretty girl! But
Such long queues! What pretty girls! (Plural nouns, so no article.)
a can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname:

a Mr Smith
a Mrs Smith
a Miss Smith
a Mr Smith

Note: ‘a man called Smith’ and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker. Mr Smith, without a, implies that the speaker knows Mr Smith or knows of his existence.

Omission of a/an

a/an is omitted:

Before plural nouns: a/an has no plural form. So the plural of a dog is dogs, and of an egg is eggs.
Before uncountable nouns: Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective: We have breakfast at eight. He gave us a good breakfast. The article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone’s honour: I was invited to dinner(at their house, in the ordinary way) but I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador.

a/an and one (adjective)

When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc. we can use either a/an or one for the singular:

£1 = a/one pound
£1,000,000 = a/one million pounds

But note that in:

The rent is £100 a week

the a before week is not replaceable by one. In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because one + noun normally means ‘one only/not more than one’ and a/an does not mean this:

A shotgun is no good. (It is the wrong sort of thing.)
One shotgun is no good. (I need two or three.)

Special uses of One

one (adjective/pronoun) used with another/others:

One (boy) wanted to read, another /others wanted to watch TV.
One day he wanted his lunch early, another day he wanted it late.

one can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc. or before the name of the day or month to denote a particular time when something happened:

One night there was a terrible storm.
One winter the snow fell early.
One day a telegram arrived.

one day can also be used to mean ‘at some future date’:

One day you’ll be sorry you treated him so badly. (Some day would also be possible.)

a/an and one (pronoun)

one is the pronoun equivalent of a/an:

Did you get a ticket? — Yes, I managed to get one.

The plural of one used in this way is some:

Did you get tickets? — Yes, I managed to get some.

a little/a few and little/few

A a little/little (adjectives) are used before uncountable nouns:

a little salt/little salt

a few/few (adjectives) are used before plural nouns:

a few people/few people

All four forms can also be used as pronouns, either alone or with of:

Sugar? — A little, please.
Only a few of these are any good.

a little, a few (adjectives and pronouns)

a little is a small amount, or what the speaker considers a small amount, a few is a small number, or what the speaker considers a small number. only placed before a little/a few emphasises that the number or amount really is small in the speaker’s opinion:

Only a few of our customers have accounts.

But quite placed before a few increases the number considerably:

I have quite a few books on art. (quite a lot of books)

little and few (adjectives and pronouns)

little and few denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a negative:

There was little time for consultation.

Little is known about the side-effects of this drug.

Few towns have such splendid trees.

This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English (probably because in conversation little and few might easily be mistaken for a little/a few). In conversation, therefore, little and few are normally replaced by hardly any. A negative verb + much/many is also possible:

We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didn’t see much.
Tourists come here but few stay overnight = Tourists come here but hardly any stay overnight.

But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by so, very, too. extremely, comparatively, relatively etc. fewer (comparative) can also be used more freely.

I’m unwilling to try a drug I know so little about.
They have too many technicians, we have too few.
There are fewer butterflies every year.

a little/little (adverbs)

a little can be used:
(1) with verbs:

It rained a little during the night.
They grumbled a little about having to wait.

(2) with ‘unfavourable’ adjectives and adverbs:

a little anxious a little unwillingly
a little annoyed a little impatiently

(3) with comparative adjectives or adverbs:

The paper should be a little thicker.
Can’t you walk a little faster?

rather could replace a little in (2) and can also be used before comparatives, though a little is more usual. In colloquial English a bit could be used instead of a little in all the above examples. little is used chiefly with better or more in fairly formal style:

His second suggestion was little (= not much) better than his first.
He was little (= not much) more than a child when his father died.

Definite Article – the

You use the when you know that the listener knows or can work out what particular person/thing you are talking about. For example:

The apple you ate was rotten.
Did you lock the car?

You should also use the when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about.
For example:

She’s got two children; a girl and a boy.
The girl’s eight and the boy’s fourteen.

We use the to talk about geographical points on the globe.
For example:

the North Pole,
the equator

We use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas
For example:

the Ganga,
the Pacific,
the English channel

We also use the before certain nouns when we know there is only one of a particular thing.
For example:

the rain,
the sun,
the wind,
the world,
the earth,
the Parliament etc..

However if you want to describe a particular instance of these you should use a/an.
For example:

I could hear the wind. / There’s a cold wind blowing.
What are your plans for the future? / She has a promising future ahead of her.

The is also used to say that a particular person or thing being mentioned is the best, most famous, etc. In this use, ‘the’ is usually given strong pronunciation:
For example:

Tajmahal is the place to go.
You don’t mean you met the Laloo Prasad, do you?

Note – The doesn’t mean all:
For example:

The books are expensive. = (Not all books are expensive, just the ones I’m talking about.)
Books are expensive. = (All books are expensive.)

the with names of people has a very limited use. the + plural surname can be used to mean ‘the . . . family’:

the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children)

the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of the same name:

We have two Mr Smiths. Which do you want? — I want the Mr Smith who signed this letter.

Omission of the

The definite article is not used:
Before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people. Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense;

Men fear death but The death a/the Prime Minister left his party without a leader.

After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective:

the boy’s uncle = the uncle of the boy It is my (blue) book = The (blue) book is mine.

Before names of meals:

The Scots have porridge/or breakfast but The wedding breakfast was held in her/other’s house.

Before names of games:

He plays golf.

Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive adjective:

Raise your right hand. fie took off his coat.

But notice that sentences of the type:

She seized the child’s collar.
I patted his shoulder.
The brick hit John’s face. could be expressed:
She seized the child by the collar.
I patted him on the shoulder.
The brick hit John in the face.

Similarly in the passive:

He was hit on the head.
He was cut in the hand.

Note that in some European languages the definite article is used before indefinite plural nouns but that in English the is never used in this way:

Women are expected to like babies, (i.e. women in general)
Big hotels all over the world are very much the same.

If we put the before women in the first example, it would mean that we were referring to a particular group of women. nature, where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and animals etc., is used without the:

If you interfere with nature you will suffer for it.

Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and before work, sea and town A home
When home is used alone, i.e. is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase, the is omitted:

He is at home.

home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion, i.e. it can be treated as an adverb:

He went home.
I arrived home after dark.

But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any other noun:

They went to their new home.
We arrived at the bride’s home.

For some years this was the home of your queen. A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university
the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are visited or used for their primary purpose. We go:

to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients
to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to court as litigants etc.
to school/college/university to study

Similarly we can be:

in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients
at church as worshippers
at school etc. as students
in court as witnesses etc.
We can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university.
We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from prison.

When these places are visited or used for other reasons the is necessary:

I went to the church to see the stained glass.
He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.

sea

We go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or crew). But
to go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside.
We can also live by/near the sea.

work and office
work (= place of work) is used without the:

He’s on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn’t back from work yet.

Note that at work can also mean ‘working’; hard at work = working hard:

He’s hard at work on a new picture.

office (= place of work) needs the:

He is at/in the office.

To be in office (without the) means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be out of office = to be no longer in power.
town
the can be omitted when speaking of the subject’s or speaker’s own town:

We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
We were in town last Monday.

NOTE If an adjective is preceded by so, the a or an must be placed between the adjective and the noun. I have never known so dry a summer, (not a so dry summer). The indefinite article always follows the word such when it is applied to things which are countable. I have never known such a dry summer, (not a such dry summer) Such a thing has never happened before, (not a such thing)

Always remember

(i) ‘a’ is used before nouns beginning with a consonant sound:

a boy / a chair / a dog / a pen

(ii) an’is used before nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)

an apple / an egg / an inkpot / an umbrella

Note: The initial sound, not the spelling is important.

The Indefinite article is not used

(a) Before uncountable nouns: The following nouns are singular and uncountable in English: advice, information, news, luggage, baggage, furniture, politics, knowledge, pay, health, soap, homework, weather. They are often preceded by: some, any, a little, a lot of, a piece of etc; as.

Our teacher gave us a piece of advice.
There isn’t any news.
Do you need some more information.

(b) Before plural nouns: The indefinite article has no plural form. Therefore the plural of a horse is horses.
(c) Materials: glass, wood, iron, stone, paper, cloth, sugar, oil, wine, coffee, tea, water, etc. are considered uncountable. But many of these nouns also denote one particular thing, and then take an article:

Windows are made of glass but Have a glass of wine.
Iron is a metal but I use an iron (electric iron).

(d) Before abstract nouns: beauty, happiness, fear, hope, death, bravery, laughter, sadness, mercy, etc., except when they are used in a particular sense:

He burst into laughter.
He was gay with happiness.
The accused asked for mercy.
She was a woman of great beauty.

(e) Before names of meals, except when preceded by an adjective:

We have lunch at noon.
He gave us a hearty (adj) meal.

(f) In exclamatory sentences with uncountable nouns:

What good milk this is!
What weather we are having!

(g) The indefinite article is not used if the noun denotes a title or office that can only be held by one person at a time, e.g.

They made him King (Not: ‘a king’).
Mr. Ghosh was Professor of English at Calcutta University. (Not: ‘a Professor of English’).

The Definite Article (THE) is used

The definite article can be used before singular or plural nouns whether countable or uncountable. It is used:
(a) Before nouns of which there is only one, or which are considered as one:

the earth the sun the moon the sea the sky the North Pole

(b) Before a noun that is to be particularized by a defining relative clause:

This is the book that I advised you to read.

once upon a time there was a widow who lived in a hut. The hut was by the side of the river and the widow had lived there all her life.

Note. The indefinite article a here introduces a new thing or person; the definite article, the denotes a thing or person already mentioned. (d) Before the name of a country that is a union of smaller entities.

the United Kingdom;
the United States;
the Netherlands.

English Grammar Degree of Comparison Rules

Most adjectives have three different forms to show degrees of comparison—the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. The positive is used to describe one item, group, or person. The comparative is used to describe two items, people, or groups. The superlative is used to describe three or more items, groups, or people.
There are different ways to form the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives. Add -er or more to form the comparative of most one- and two- syllable adjectives. More, most, less, or least are added to adjectives of three or more syllables to form the superlative.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
easy	easier	easiest
delicious	more delicious	most delicious
good	better	best
talented	less talented	least talented

Faulty comparison happens when the comparison is not complete or when the items that are being compared are in different categories, like apples and oranges. Faulty comparisons are illogical constructions, which often means that the ideas you intend to convey may not come through to your reader and may render statement or argument ineffective. In this handout, we’ll discuss several different kinds of comparison: errors in degree of comparison, incomplete and ambiguous comparisons, and illogical comparisons.

Avoiding Errors in Degrees of Comparison

The degree of comparison speaks to the three forms of adjectives that can be used when comparing items: positive, comparative, and superlative. Let’s discuss the degrees of comparisons along with common errors that writers make in forming comparisons.
The positive form refers to the unaltered version of an adjective, such as smart, funny, and young. This form can be used to compare items when combined with as. It is important to note that the adjective should have as prior to and following it in order for the comparison to be complete.

Example:

Josh is as smart as Kelsey.
When it comes to degrees of comparison, you should use comparative and superlative forms of adjectives. The comparative degree is used when you are comparing two items. Most comparatives use the ending er, like smarter, faster, and smoother (there are exceptions like less, which we will be discussing below), but some require you to use more followed by an adjective or adverb, such as more attractive. Typically you will use the comparative degree in association with than.

Example:

He read Dinkar’s poem faster than Rosy did.
Let’s discuss some guidelines for deciding whether you should use the –er ending or more when you use the comparative degree. Most one syllable adjectives and two syllable adjectives that end in y end in –er (calmer and lovelier), while adjectives with more syllables use more (more beautiful). However, you should keep in mind there are some exceptions to these guidelines because there are some two syllable adjectives that use the ending –er, such as simple. As always, if you are not sure if an adjective should end in –er or use more, you can always look it up in a dictionary.
Note: If you are using adjectives that end in –er in the same list with adjectives that use more, the adjectives that end in –er should be listed before the adjectives that use more. You should also note that there is a specific order for presenting adjectives in a list: observation (pretty), physical description (size, shape, age, and color), origin (Spanish), material (cotton), and qualifier (normally already part of the noun, like walking stick).

Example:

She is smarter, smaller, and more beautiful than Kylie is.
The superlative degree compares three or more items and is considered the greatest degree. Many superlatives end with –est: smartest, fastest, and smoothest, unless the superlative ends with a y in which you would end with or –iest, like happiest. This rule also applies to the comparative degree that ends with a y, such as easier. Normally, the superlative degree is preceded by the and is followed by a noun in the sentence.

Example:

Karen has the highest grade in the group.
While we are discussing comparative and superlative degrees, let’s also discuss irregular adjectives and adverbs. These words are irregular because when you change the degree, you change the word completely instead of just adding –er or –est to the end. For example, the comparative form of little is less, and the superlative form is least. If you are unsure about whether the word changes completely or if it just needs –er or –est at the end, you should always check a dictionary.
Faulty comparison can also occur when a comparative ending in –er or a superlative ending in est is used with words like more, most, less, or least. For example, you wouldn’t say more tastier; you would say tastier. This kind of faulty comparison is called a double comparative or double superlative.

Example:

Incorrect: Ram’s resume is more clearer than Shyam’s.
Correct: Ram’s resume is clearer than Shyam’s.

Double comparatives and double superlatives are the markers of an unsophisticated writer or speaker. Let’s also talk about absolute concepts in this section. There are certain words that are considered to be absolute and so cannot be logically compared, like perfect and unique. These words are considered to be absolutes because, by definition, there is not a degree of comparison. Something is either perfect or it is not—there are no higher degrees of perfection.

Example:

Incorrect: Ernest wrote the most perfect correspondence today.
Correct: Ernest wrote a perfect correspondence today.

As you can see by the example above, the correspondence can be perfect, but it cannot be more than perfect. It is important to note that you can use adverbs, like almost, before the absolute. For example, the example above could be changed to “Ernest wrote a nearly perfect correspondence today.”

Incomplete and Ambiguous Comparisons

In order for the reader to understand what items are being compared, the comparison needs to be complete.

Example:

Incomplete: Ram is not as mean.

This sentence is worded in a way that indicates there is a comparison, but the comparison is incomplete because we do not know what is being compared.

Complete: Ram is not as mean as Shyam is.

This version of the example has a complete comparison of Ram and Shyam. Comparisons must always be complete because otherwise the reader will not understand completely what is being said.
When writing a comparative sentence, the comparison must be clear so the reader will know what is being compared, otherwise the comparison is ambiguous.

Example:

Ambiguous: Naomi scored more points in this basketball game.
In the ambiguous example above, the reader does not know what is being compared—are we comparing Naomi’s points to the rest of the team’s points, to another specific player’s points, or that she scored more points in this game than she did in the rest of the games this season.
Clear: Naomi scored more points than she did in the last game.
This complete example is clear about what is being compared: Naomi’s performance in this game is being compared to her performance in the previous game. As you can see, each of these examples includes either as or than. As and than often indicate that there is going to be a comparison in the sentence. You must be careful when using these terms, though, because when the sentence includes more than one noun that could be compared, the comparison can be ambiguous.
Ambiguous: Keith helped Amber more than Elizabeth on the homework assignment.
This sentence is ambiguous because we do not know if Keith helped Amber more than Elizabeth helped Amber or if Keith helped Amber more than he helped Elizabeth.
Clear: Keith helped Amber more than he helped Elizabeth on the homework.
Now, this comparison is clearer because we know the complete comparison—Keith helped Amber more than he helped Elizabeth.

Illogical Comparisons

Illogical comparisons occur when two or more items are compared, but the items are not in the same category. For example, you cannot compare Dickinson’s poetry with Whitman; you have to compare their poems (Dickinson’s poetry with Whitman’s poetry). For the most part, students tend to make this mistake because they think the sentence is self explanatory. You must always include specifically what or who is being compared in order for the reader to understand fully what is being discussed.
Illogical: The flowers in Quinton’s yard are prettier than Jacob.
This example includes a comparison between two items that are not in the same category—Quinton’s flowers (a person’s thing) and Jacob (a person). To fix this sentence, you have to compare the same kind of items.
Logical: The flowers in Quinton’s yard are prettier than the ones in Jacob’s yard.
This logical example compares both Quinton’s and Jacob’s flowers instead of flowers and a person.

Uses of Comparative Degree

1. When two individuals or groups are compared:-He is wiser than his younger brother. NGO’s work better than the Police force.
2. When different qualities of the same person are compared we should use (more + positive degree) instead of just using a comparative degree.

Incorrect	Correct
She is wiser than fairer.	She is more wise than fair.
She is shorter than fatter.	She is more short than fat.

3. When selection of one out of the two persons or things is implied, the degree of comparison is followed by (of the)

Incorrect	Correct
She is wiser in the two sisters.	She is wiser of the two sisters.
James is faster in the two boys.	James is faster of the two boys.

4. If two comparatives are used in the same sentence to emphasis on a certain idea both of them should be followed by ‘the’

Incorrect	Correct
Higher you go, cooler it gets.	The higher you go, the cooler it gets.
Better you eat, healthier you get	The better you eat, the healthier you get

5. When one person or thing is compared to all other of same kind we use any other’ or all other”

Incorrect	Correct
Kalidas is better than any poet.	Kalidas is better than any other poet.
Shelly was greater than all poets.	Shelly was greater than all other poets.

6. To enhance the degree of comparison we use (far + comparative) degree

Incorrect	Correct
Kalidas is better than any poet.	Kalidas is better than any other poet.
Shelly was more greater than all other poets.	Shelly was far greater than all other poets.

7. Certain adjectives of comparative degree that take ‘to’ after them and not ‘than’ like senior, inferior, junior, prior, anterior, posterior, preferable etc.

Incorrect	Correct
He is superior than I	He is superior to me.
Tea is preferable than coffee.	Tea is preferable to coffee.

Certain comparatives that are now used in positive degree are elder, former, later, inner, outer, utter, upper, hinder, major, minor, interior, e4terior, ulterior, posterior etc.

Incorrect	Correct
He is my elder than brother.	He is my elder brother.
He is our former than prime minister.	He is our former prime minister.

Uses of superlative degree

When more than two persons are compared we use superlative degree.

Incorrect	Correct
He is the best musician of the two.	He is the best musician.

It is generally preceded by ‘the’ and followed by ‘of’.

Incorrect	Correct
He is the noblest man town	He is the noblest man of the town.

When a superlative degree is used after an adjective or a noun in possessive case we do not put ‘the’ before the superlative

Incorrect	Correct
It was Kalidas’s the best play.	It was Kalidas’s best play.

To intensify the superlative degree we use ‘by far’ before the superlative degree.

Some adjectives that are often confused with each other

The Little, A little, little

The Little and a little are positive in sense and mean (some quantity) while little is negative in sense.
The little: It denotes less quantity but all that is available. E.g. The little amount that he had with him was not enough for survival.
A Little: It denotes very less quantity of something. E.g. A little knowledge is a very dangerous thing.
Little: It denotes no quantity. E.g. You know little about the incident as you were not present there.

The Few, A Few, Few

Few = Negative = 0 = Nothing
A few = Some
The Few = Some but all

The few boys that were present in the class did not bring their books.
She asked for a few sweets.
Few blessings were showered upon him.

Some

Some is positive in sense and used to describe (less ir number or quantity).

Some water was still there in the glass.
Some birds were sitting on the fence.

It is also used to ask negative questions in which helping verb or the auxiliary verb is negative. Can’t you get me some water? Didn’t he give you some information?

Any

Any is used in negative sense for describing the sense danger, after the words such as hardly, barely, scarcely.

If you feel any danger just give me a call.
I have hardly any money with me.
Barely had he had any shelter to save him form the co

Much, Many, More

Much is used in the sense of enough but in case of uncountable nouns.

He did much drama for such a trifle.

Many is used in the sense of comparison for countable nouns.
If an adjective is preceded by so, the a or an must be placed between the adjective and the noun.

I have never known so dry a summer, (not a so dry summer).

The indefinite article always follows the word such when it is applied to things which are countable.

I have never known such a dry summer, (not a such dry summer)

Such a thing has never happened before, (not a such thing)

English Grammar Modal Verb Rules

The verbs like can, could, may, might, would, shall, should and ought are called modal verbs or modals. They are used with ordinary verbs to express see meanings such as possibility, permission, certainly etc.

Can usually expresses ability or capacity.
Example: I can swim across the river. Can you lift this table?
Can is also use to empress permission.
Example: You can go now.
May is a more formal modal used to express permission.
Example: You may come in. May I leave the room now?
May is also used to suggest possibility in an affirmative sentence.
Example: He may be at home It may rain tomorrow.
Can is used to suggest possibility in negative/interrogative sentence.
Example: Can this be true? It cannot be so.
May when used in a negative sentence suggests an improbability whereas can suggests impossibility.
Example: He may not come today. She cannot sing.
Could and might are used as past forms of can and ‘may’.
Example: I could swim across the river when I was young. I thought he might be at home.
Might suggests less possibility or probability than may.
Example: I might go to Bangalore next week suggests the probability of going is less than a sentence with ‘may’ will suggest.
Could is used as a polite form of seeking permission or making a request.
Example: Could you pass me the plate ? Could I please talk to Mr. Grover?
Shall is used with first person and will in all the persons to denote future action.
Example: I shall need the money tomorrow. When will you come next?
Shall is used with the second and third person to express command, promise or threat.
Example: You shall never come near my child. You shall be punished for this. We shall go for a picnic this Sunday.
Will You? indicates an invitation or request.
Example: Will you dine with us tonight? Will you lend me your car for a week ?
Should and would are used as past forms of shall and will.
Example: I expected that I would get a first class. She would sit for hours listening to the radio.
Should is used to express duty or obligation.
Example: We should obey the laws. You should keep your promise.
Should is used to express a supposition.
Example: If it should rain, they will not come.
Should can also be used to express probability.
Example: He should be in the library.
Must is used to express necessity.
Example: You must improve your spelling.
Must is also need to express obligation, and is a stronger word than should.
Example: We must follow the law.
Must is also used to express logical certainty.
Example: Living alone in such a big city must be difficult.
Ought is used to express moral obligation and is stronger than both should and must.
Example: We ought to love our parents.
Ought is also used to express probability sometime when the probability is very strong.
Example: The book ought to be very useful.

English Grammar Tense Rules

Tense is the form taken by a verb to indicate time and continuance or completeness of action. The continuance or completeness of action is denoted by four subcategories.

a) Simple Tense:It is used for habitual or routine actions in the Present Tense, action which is over in the Past Tense & action to happen in the Future Tense.
b) Continuous Tense: The action is incomplete or continuous or going on.
c) Perfect Tense: The action is complete, finished or perfect with respect to a certain point of time.
d) Perfect Continuous Tense: The action is going on continuously over a long period of time and is yet to be finished.

The different tenses and the verb forms used in each tense

Name of Tenses	Verb form used in Tenses
Present simple / indefinite	Verb / verb + s/es
Present continuous / Progressive	Is/am/are + verb + ing
Present perfect	Has / have + third form of verb
Present perfect continuous	Has/have + been + verb + ing
Past simple / indefinite	Second form of verb only
Past continuous / Progressive	Was/were + verb + ing
Past perfect	Had + third form of verb
Past perfect continuous	Had been + verb + ing
Future simple / indefinite	Shall / will + verb
Future continuous / Progressive	Shall / will + be + verb + ing
Future perfect	Shall/will + Have + past participle
Future perfect continuous	Shall/will + have been + verb + ing

Uses of Simple Present Tense

1. To express a habitual action.
For example:

I get up every day at five o’clock.

2. To express general truths.
For example:

Fortune favours the brave.

3. In vivid narrative, as substitute for the simple past.
For example:

Immediately the Sultan hurries to his capital.

4. To indicate a future event that is part of a fixed programme or time table.
For example:

The train leaves at 5:20 am.

Note: We can also use will leave in place of leaves.
5. It is used to introduce quotations.
For example:

Keats says, ‘A thing of beauty is a joy forever’.

6. In exclamatory’ sentences beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking place in the present.
For example:

Here comes the bus!

7. When two actions of the future are being talked about, one dependent on the other, the former action is represented by present simple and the latter by future simple.
For example:

We shall go when the child comes back home.

Uses of Present Continuous Tense

1. For an action going on at the time of speaking.
For example:

The boys are playing cricket in the ground.

2. For a temporary action that may not be actually happening at the time of speaking but was happening in the recent past and is still happening in recent future.
For example:
I am reading Sidney Sheldon now a days.
3. To express changing or developing situations.
For example:

India is progressing day by day.

4. For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future.
For example:

I am going to cinema tonight.

Note: But it is not good to use the present continuous for slightly distant future. So, don’t say

a) I am going to cinema next week. Rather, use the future simple. So, it is better if you say
b) I will go to cinema next week.

5. When the reference is to a particularly obstinate habit, the present continuous is used instead of present simple. An adverb like always, continually, constantly is also used.
For example:

It is no use scolding him; he always does what is forbidden. (Incorrect)

Note: that his doing what is forbidden has become a die-hard habit. The habit persists in spite of advice or warning. So, we should use the present continuous.
For example:

It is no use scolding him; he is always doing what is forbidden. (Correct)

Uses of Present Perfect Tense

1. To indicate the completed activities in the immediate past.
For example:
He has just gone out.
2. Action completed in the immediate past or an action of the past whose effect lingers in the present.
For example:

I wrote three books. (Incorrect)

The given sentence appears to be incomplete. The reader of the sentence immediately queries. ‘When did you write three books?” It would be a different case if you said
For example:

I wrote books.

Then the reader would infer that you wrote books in the past as a profession or hobby. But when you are being so specific as to say “three books”, we immediately feel the need of a time frame. Since no time frame is mentioned, we assume it to be ‘by now’. So, we have something to the effect.
For example:

I have written three books by now.

This ‘by now’ is implied and need not be written.
So, For example:

I have written three books. (Correct)

3. The present perfect is never used with adverbs of past time. In such cases the past simple should be used.
For example:

India has won the match last week (Incorrect)

“Last week” is not immediate past. You may therefore be tempted to use the present perfect. But remember that the immediate past here does not go unindicated. Last week is being used as an adverb of past time.
So, For example:

India won the match last week. (Correct)

4. To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite – actions with their effect continuing in the present.
For example:

a) I have never known him to be angry.
b) Have you read ‘Gulliver’s Travels’?

5. To describe the past events when we think more of their effect in the present than of the action itself.
For example:

I have cut my finger.

6. For long actions and situations which started in the near past and went on until very recently. For example:

I have read three chapters since this morning.

Uses of Present Perfect Continuous Tense

For an action, which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. With the present perfect continuous tense an adverb or phrase that expresses time is used.
For example:

a) I have been reading this book since morning.
b) They have been building the bridge for several months.

Uses of Simple Past Tense

1. To indicate an action completed in the past. Generally, adverbs or adverb phrases of past time are used in the past simple tense.
For example:

a) The steamer sailed yesterday.
b) He went home some time back.

2. To express imaginary present situations or imaginary future events that may not happen.
For example:

a) If I had longer holidays, I would be very happy.
b) If I got rich, I would travel all over the world.

3. When this tense is used without an adverb of time, then time may be either implied or indicated by the context.
For example:

I didn’t sleep well. (i.e., last night)

4. For past habits ‘used to’ is added to the verb.
For example:

She used to carry an umbrella.

Uses of Past Continuous Tense

1. To denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action may or may not be indicated.
For example:

a) It was getting darker.
b) We were listening to the radio all evening.

2. When a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. In this case Past simple and Past continuous are used together. Past simple is used for the new action.
For example:

The Light went out while I was reading.

3. For persistent habits in the past.
For example:

She was always chewing gum.

Uses of Past Perfect Tense

1. When two actions happened in the past. In this case it is necessary to show which action happened earlier than the other. Here past perfect is used for the action, which happened earlier.
For example:

a) When I reached the station the train had started.
b) I had done my exercise when Hari came to see me.

2. An action that began before a certain point of time in the past & was continuing at the given point of time in the sentence. A time expression like since last year, for the last few days is generally put after perfect continuous tense.
For example:

At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.

Here, At that time is the given point of time and for two months is the point of time in the past.

Uses of Simple Future Tense

For an action that has still to take place.
For example:

a) I shall see him tomorrow.
b) Tomorrow will be Sunday.

Uses of Future Continuous Tense

1. Represents an action as going on at sometime in the future.
For example:
I shall be reading the paper then.
2. Represents the future events that are planned.
For example:
He will be meeting us next week.

Uses of Future Perfect Tense

To indicate the completion of an event by a certain future time.
For example:

I shall have written my exercise by that time.

Uses of Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1. The future perfect continuous tense indicates an action represented it being in progress over a period of time that will end in the future. Generally time period is mentioned along with it.
For example:

By next July we shall have been living here for four years.

2. Event occurring at the same time must be given in the same tense.
For example:

When he fainted his brother was with him.

3. Will or Shall cannot be used twice in thesame sentence even if both the actions refer to the future tense.
For example:

a) I shall come if he will call me. (Wrong)
b) I shall come if he calls me. (Right)

4. With the phrases as if and as though the past tense and plural form of the verb should be used.
For example:

a) He behaves as if he is a king. (Wrong)
b) He behaves as if he were a king. (Right)

5. With the word ‘wish’ four verbs are used namely were, had, could, would. ‘Were’ is used when the wish seems to be unrealisable.
For example:

I wish I were a king.

6. ‘Had’ is used when our wish is a lament over the past happening.
For example:

I wish I had accepted that job.

7. ‘Would’ is used when we refer to the future.
For example:

I wish I would get a ticket.

8. ‘Could’ is used when we wish that something that has happened already should have happened otherwise.
For example:

He did not go because he was busy yesterday. I wish he could go with you.

9. ‘For’ is used for a period of time.
For example:

He has been working for two hours.

10. ‘Since’ is used with a point of time.
For example:

He has been working since morning.

11. In case of conditional sentences ‘had’ and ‘would have’ are used.
For example:

If I had met him I would have invited him.

English Grammar Active and Passive Voice Rules

In English, the verb form which indicates whether the subject (person or object) of a sentence do something or something has been done on the subject called the voice. A sentence that begin with the subject or the object to determine whether the sentence was categorized as active or passive voice sentences.

For example, when a sentence has one auxiliary verb, such as am, are, is, been, being, be, and past participle of verbs like written, driven, drawn, known, learnt, broken, discovered; the sentence is a passive voice.

Uses of Passive Voice

1. “By” is used in the passive voice when the actor needs to know the job.
Example: “Love addicted” was sung by Vamps.
2. Passive voice is used if it doesn’t need to know the perpetrator work.
Example: the streets are cleaned everyday
3. Passive voice is used if we don’t know or forget who the perpetrator work.
Example: The police was murdered.
4. Passive voice is used if we are more interested in the job than the actors who work.
Example: A new departmental store is being built.
5. Passive voice is used to avoid an awkward sentence or inappropriate with grammar.
Example: When she arrived home a police arrested her — it’s better: when she arrived home she was arrested (by a police).

The Rules to Change the Sentences from Active to Passive Form

The sentence must have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there must be question word who asks the object.
Object active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.
Subject or active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word “by”.
The verb used is verb III (past participle) which preceded by to be.
The adjusted sentence structure by tenses.

Fundamental Rules

1. The places of subject and object are interchanged i.e. the object shifts to the place of subject and subject shifts to the place of object in passive voice.
Example:

Active voice: I write a letter.
Passive voice: I letter is written by me.

Subject (I) of sentence shifted to the place of object (letter) and object (letter) shifted to the place of subject (I) in passive voice.
2. Sometimes subject of sentence is not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence can be omitted in passive voice, if without subject it can give enough meaning in passive voice.
Example:

Passive voice: cloth is sold in yards

3. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice for all tenses. Base form of verb or present participle will be never used in passive voice.
The word “by” is used before subject in sentences in passive voice.
Example:

Active voice: He sings a song.
Passive voice: A song is sung by him.

4. The word “by” is not always used before subject in passive voice. Sometimes words “with, to, etc” may also be used before subject in passive voice.
Examples:

Active voice: The water fills the tub.
Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
Active voice: He knows me.
Passive voice: I am known to him.

5. Auxiliary verbs are used passive voice according to the tense of sentence.

Changes of Pronouns

Active Voice	Passive Voice
I	me
we	us
you	you
he	him
she	her
it	it
they	them

The Form of Active Voice and Passive Voice in Tenses

Passive voice in Simple Present Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + infinitive + object	Formula: S + to be + past participle + by object

Examples:

Simson cares the lion	The lion is cared by Simson
Ana does the homework	The homework is done by Ana
They sell that house	That house is sell by them
Jessica always plays the piano	The piano is always played by Jessica
She buys a book	A book is bought by her

Passive voice in Present Continuous Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + to be (is, am, are) + present participle + object	Formula: S + to be (is, am, are) + being + past participle + by object

Examples:

She is doing her homework	The homework is being done by her
He is waiting for Dewi	Dewi is being waited by him
They are giving the present	The present is being given by them
Bobby is drawing a nice scenery	A nice scenery is being drawn by Bobby
Ratna is writing the letter	The letter is being written by Ratna

Passive voice in Simple Past Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + past participle + object	Formula: S + was/were + past participle + by object

Examples:

She cleaned the house	The house was cleaned by her
Jeffri bought a new car	A new car was bought by Jeffri
The teacher called the students	The students were called by the teacher
She saved her money	Her money was saved by her
Rina paid all her purchase	Her purchase were paid by Rina

Passive voice in Past Continuous Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: S + was/were + being + past participle + by object	Formula: S + was/were + being + past participle + by object

Examples:

I was waiting for Dina	Dina was being waited by me
She was reading a novel	A novel was being read by her
Andi was learning an English	An English was being learnt by Andi
They are building the house	The house being built by them
He was playing a kite	A kite was being played by him

Passive voice in Past Perfect Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + had + past participle + object	Formula: S + had been + past participle + by object

Examples:

He had left that place	That place had been left by him
I had finished my work	My work had been finished by me
She had missed the last bus	The last bus had been missed by her
He had posted the letter	The letter had been posted by him
Rudi had completed his speech	His speech had been completed by Rudi

Passive voice in Simple Future Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + will + infinitive + object	Formula: S + will + be + past participle + by object

Examples:

I shall read a newspaper	A newspaper will be read by me
She will sing a beautiful song	A beautiful song will be sung by her
Budi will repair his bicycle	His bicycle will be repaired by Budi
They will pay the tax	The tax will be paid by them
We shall start this meeting	This meeting will be started by us

Passive voice in Future Continuous Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + will be + present participle + object	Formula: S + will + be + ing + past participle + by object

Examples:

He will be doing a test tomorrow	A test will be being done by him tomorrow
They will be watching movie on next Saturday	The movie will be being watched by them on next Saturday
Mita will be increasing her value next time	Her value will be being increased by Mita next time
She will be applying a job tomorrow	A job will be being applied by her tomorrow
Sinta will be learning her lesson next week	Her lesson will be being learnt by Sinta

Passive voice in Past Future Tense

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Formula: Subject + would + infinitive + object	Formula: S + would + be +past pasrticiple + by object

Examples:

I would buy a book tomorrow	A book would be bought by me
They would play football next time	Football would be played by them next time
Mita would wash her shoes tomorrow	Her shoes would be washed by Nita tomorrow
My father would use Blackberry tomorrow	Blackberry would be used by my father tomorrow
I would sell my laptop next week	My laptop would be sold next week

The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice.

Present perfect continuous tense
Past perfect continuous tense
Future perfect continuous tense

Active and Passive voice using Modals

Active and Passive voice using Can

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + can + infinitive + object	S + can be + past participle + by object

Examples:

She can sell the car every time.	The car can be sold by her every time.
Can she play a violin?	Can a violin be played by her?

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after can. The sentence patterns are:

S + can not + infinitive + object	S + can not be + past participle + object
Risky can not buy this car every time.	This car can not be bought by Risky every time.

Active and Passive voice using May

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + may + infinitive + object	S + may be + past participle + by object

Examples:

He may sell the house.	The house may be sold by him.
May I buy the computer?	May the computer be bought by me?

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after may.

I may not buy the computer.

The computer may not be bought by me.

Active and Passive voice using Must

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + must + infinitive + object	S + must be + past participle + by object

Examples:

He must finish his duty in a week.

His duty must be finished by him in a week.

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after must.

Dewi must not open the gate every morning.

The gate must not be opened by Dewi every morning.

Active and Passive voice using Might

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + might + infinitive + object	S + might be + past participle + by object

Examples:

He might meet Dewi.

Dewi might be met by him.

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after might.

Guests might not play chess.

Chess might not be played guests.

Passive voice for “May Have, Might Have, Should Have, Must Have, Ought To Have”

Active voice: MAY HAVE	Active voice: MAY HAVE BEEN
You may have availed the opportunity.	The opportunity may have been availed by you.
You may not have availed the opportunity.	The opportunity may not have been availed by you.
Active voice: MIGHT HAVE	Active voice: MIGHT HAVE BEEN
He might have eaten meal.	Meal might have been eaten by him.
He might not have eaten meal.	Meal might not have been eaten by him.
Active voice: SHOULD HAVE	Active voice: SHOULD HAVE BEEN
You should have studied the book.	The book should have been studied by you.
You should not have studied the book.	The book should have not been studied by you.
Active voice: MUST HAVE	Active voice: MUST HAVE BEEN
He must have started job.	Job must have been started by you.
He must not have started job.	Job must not have been started by you.
Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE	Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN
You ought to have helped him.	He ought to have been helped by you

Verbs Followed by Modals (Can, could, may, might, would, should, ought)

The form of the verb is the same as that of a verb in the Simple Future Tense, i.e., modal auxiliary + be + III form.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
You can do this work.	This work can be done by you.
Police could not catch the thief.	The thief could not be caught by police.
You may read this book.	This book may be read by you.
He might suffer a great loss.	A great loss might be suffered by him.
You should respectyour parents.	Your parents should be respected by you.
She would teach us today.	We would be taught by her today.
We must help the poor.	The poor must be helpedby us.
We ought to respectour elders.	Our elders ought to be respected by us.

Passive Voice	Active Voice
A scholarship may be won by her.	She may win a scholarship.
Could this sum be solvedby you?	Could you solve this sum?
Should cards be played atby us?	Should we play at cards.
By whom could he behelped?	Who could help him?

Imperative Sentences

A sentence that expresses a command, or a request or an advice, or an entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence or Desire.

Characteristics of Imperative Sentences

The object you is generally missing in Imperative Sentences. The structure of such sentences in Passive Voice is: Let + object + be/not be + V3
In sentences which express request, advice and order, such phrases as, You are requested to/advised to /ordered to are used.
Word kindly/please are dropped.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Do it.	Let it be done.
Call in the doctor.	Let the doctor be called in.
Never tell a lie.	Let a lie be never told
Shut the door.	Let the door be shut.
Do not starve the cow.	Let the cow not be starved
Stand up.	You are ordered to stand up.
Kindly lend me some money.	You are requested to lend me some money.
Work hard.	You are advised to work hard
Don not do it.	You are forbidden to do it. or Let it be not done

Passive Voice	Active Voice
You are ordered to open the door.	Open the door.
You are requested to come here.	Come here please.
Let the light be witched on.	Switch on the light.
Let your parents be obeyed.	Obey your parents.

Change of Voice in the Infinitive Verbs

Active Voice	Passive Voice
to + V¹	to + be + V³
I have to do this work.	This work has to be done.
I want to buy this book.	I want this book to be bought.
Women like men to flatter them.	Women like to be flattered by men.
There is no shop to let.	There is no shop to be let. infinitive ‘to’

Verbs/phrases

I made him stand up.	He was made to stand up by me.
I saw him cross the road.	He was seen to cross the road (by me).

It is time to

It is time to do this work.	It is time for this work to be done.
It is time to call the roll.	It is time for the roll to be called.
Passive Voice	Active Voice
I expect her to be brought round.	I expect to bring her round.
A pen is to be written with.	A pen is to write with.
It is time for the race to be run.	It is time to run the race.
They should he invited by us.	We should invite them.

Sentences which cannot be changed into passive voice

Transitive and intransitive verb

A verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb needs an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning while intransitive verb does need an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning.
For example:
Transitive verb: He sent a letter. (Send is a transitive verb and it needs an object i.e. letter to express full meaning.)
Intransitive Verb: He laughs. (Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need object for expressing full meaning.)
e.g. Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs.

Intransitive verb cannot be changed into passive voice

The sentences having intransitive verbs (belonging to any tense) cannot be changed into passive voice. The reason is that there is not any object in such sentences and without object of sentence passive voice is not possible.
A sentence can be changed into passive voice if it has subject and object. Sometimes subject may not be written in passive voice but it does not mean that it has no subject. Such sentences have subject but the subject is so common or familiar or known that if even it is not written in passive voice, it gives full meaning.
For example: Cloth is sold in yards.

English Grammar Direct and Indirect Speech Rules

We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.

Direct Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech) Here what a person says appears within quotation marks (“…”) and should be word for word.
For example: She said, “Today’s lesson is on presentations.” or “Today’s lesson is on presentations,” she said.

Indirect Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word. When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct Speech: “I’m going to the cinema”.
Indirect Speech: He said he was going to the cinema.

Basic Tense Chart

The tenses generally move backwards in this way

present simple	past simple
I’m a teacher	He said he was a teacher
present continuous	past continuous
I’m having lunch with my parents	He said he was having lunch with his parents.
present perfect simple	past perfect simple
I’ve been to France three times	He said he had been to France three times.
present perfect continuous	past perfect continuous
I’ve been working very hard	He said he had been working very hard.
past simple	past perfect
I bought a new car	He said he had bought a new car.
past continuous	past perfect continuous
It was raining earlier	He said it had been raining earlier.
past perfect	past perfect
The play had started when I arrived	NO CHANGE POSSIBLE
past perfect continuous	past perfect continuous
I’d already been living in London for five years	NO CHANGE POSSIBLE

Personal pronouns

You also need to be careful with personal pronouns. They need to be changed according to the situation. You need to know the context.
For example, there is possible confusion when you try to change reported speech to direct speech:

She said she’d been waiting for hours. (Is she one person or two different people?)
I told them they would have to ask permission. (Are we talking about two groups of people or only one?)

Verb Forms

Other verb forms also sometimes change:

will	would
I’ll come and see you soon	He said he would come and see me soon.
can	could
I can swim under water for two minutes	He said he could swim under water for two minutes.
must	had to
All tickets must be bought in advance	He said that all tickets had to be bought in advance.
shall	should
What shall we do about it?	He asked what we should do about it.
may	might
May I smoke?	He asked if he might smoke.

Things are slightly more complicated with imperatives.

positive imperative	tell + infinitive
Shut up!	He told me to shut up.
negative imperative	tell + not + infinitive
Don’t do that again!	He told me not to do it again.
imperatives as requests	ask + infinitive
Please give me some money	He asked me to give him some money.

When verbs don’t follow the rules?

The verb tenses do not always follow the rules shown above. For example, if the reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change in the reported sentence. Also, a sentence in direct speech in a present or future tense can remain the same if what is said is still true or relevant.
For example:

You’ve invited someone for dinner at your house, and the phone rings. It’s them! They say:
I’m sorry, but I think I’m going to be a bit late. There’s a lot of traffic.
After you finish speaking on the phone, you say to someone else:
That was Juan. He said he thinks he’s going to be late because there’s a lot of traffic.

Another example:

A friend says to you: Maria’s ill. She’s got chickenpox!
You say to someone else: Laura said that Maria’s ill. She’s got chickenpox.
However, the following day you see Maria at the beach. You’re surprised and say to her:
Laura said that you were ill. She said you had chickenpox.
This has to change to the past because it isn’t true. Maria obviously isn’t ill.

Direct statements in a past tense do not always change either, because a change might alter the meaning or just make it sound confusing.
For example:

A friend is telling you about the horrible weather: It started raining heavily when I left work. This is where things get confusing:

He said it had started raining heavily when he had left work (it sounds horrible and the sentence is almost nothing but verbs).

He said it had started raining heavily when he left work (is wrong because it means it was already raining when he left work)

He said it started raining heavily when he left work (is the best version because it is accurate, short, and there is no confusion because of the time context)

Generally speaking, the past simple and continuous don’t always need to be changed if: there is a time context which makes everything clear, and/or there is another action already using the past perfect, which might alter the meaning or make things confusing.

Time and Place References

Time and place references often have to change:

now	then
today	that day
here	there
this	that
this week	that week
tomorrow	the following day, the next day, the day after
next week	the following week, the next week, the week after
yesterday	the previous day, the day before
last week	the previous week, the week before
ago	previously, before
2 weeks ago	2 weeks previously, 2 weeks before
tonight	that night
last Saturday	the previous Saturday, the Saturday before
next Saturday	the following Saturday, the next Saturday, the Saturday after, that Saturday

Examples:

I went to the theatre last night.
He said he had gone to the theatre the night before.
I’m having a party next weekend.
He said he was having a party the next weekend.
I’m staying here until next week.
He said he was staying there until the following week.
I came over from London 3 years ago.
He said he had come over from London 3 years before.

Universal Truth, Habitual Facts etc.

Rules:
(i) If the Reported Speech states some General, Universal or Habitual Truth, Proverb, Historical event in the past, Improbable future condition, the Present Tense used there is not changed into the corresponding past form.
(ii) The Past Indefinite Tense or the Past Continuous Tense is not changed if the Reported Speech states two actions which took place at the same time.
(iii) The Simple Past is not changed if the Reported Speech states a past historical event or fact.

Direct: My friend said, “I am an early riser.”
Indirect: My friend said that he is an early riser.
Direct: Father said, “Man is the only animal that cooks his food.”
Indirect: Father said that man is the only animal that cooks his food.
Direct: The teacher said, “Honesty is the best policy.”
Indirect: The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.
Direct: The teacher said, “The earth moves round the sun.”
Indirect: The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.
Direct: Sarla said, “When Ram was reading Sham was writing.”
Indirect: Sarla said that when Ram was reading Sham was writing.
Direct: The teacher said, “Akbar died in 1605 AD.”
Indirect: The teacher said that Akbar died in 1605 AD.

(iv) Vocative and nominative of address are omitted altogether and their sense is expressed in the sentence;

Direct: The speaker said, “Gentlemen, I will tell you what is going there.”
Indirect: The speaker told his audience (those present) that he would tell them what was going there
Direct: He said, “I hope, friends, you will support me.”
Indirect: He said that he hoped they would support him.

(v) Past tense subjunctive after would like, would rather, etc. do not change:

Direct: He said, “I would rather she played.”
Indict: He said that he would rather she played.

(vi) Pure imaginary conditions (if …. were clauses) do not change:

Direct: He said, “If I were rich, I would settle in Mumbai.
Indirect: He said that if he were rich, he would settle in Mumbai.

(vii) Simple Past or Past Continuous tense in Time Clauses do not normally change. The main verb may either remain unchanged or may become the past perfect, as,

Direct: He said. “When we lived/were living in Chennai, we often visited Rameshwarm”
Indirect: He said that when they lived/ were living in Chennai, they often visited/ had visite Rameshwarm

RULES FOR THE CHANCE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

Rule: If the direct speech has a pronoun, its person is changed, when necessary, to refer in the indirect to the same individual as it does in the direct.

First Person

A pronoun of the first person (I, my, me, our, we) in direct speech is changed in the indirect to the same person as the subject of the introductory verb, e.g.

Direct: He said, “I can cross this river.”
Indirect: He said that he could cross that river.
Direct: You said. “I can cross this river.”
Indirect: You said that you could cross that river.
Direct: I said, “I can cross this river.”
Indirect: I said that I could cross that river.

Change in Verb

Tense in Direct Speech	Tense in Indirect Speech
Present Indefinite	Past Indefinite
Present Continuous	Past Continuous
Present Perfect	Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
Past Indefinite	Past Perfect
Past Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
Future Tense shall/will	Future in the Past should & would
Conditional (would/should work)	Perfect Conditional, (would/should have worked)

Must changes as follows:

(i) Must remains unchanged when it indicates a permanent rule, command, prohibition, adv intention.
(ii) When must indicates necessity or compulsion it is changed into:

(a) had to for present or immediate necessity.
(b) would have to for future necessity.

Note: In other words, the reported verb goes one step into the past.

1. Simple Present to Simple Past

Direct: He said, “The boy goes home.”
Indirect: He said that the boy went home.

2. Present Continuous to Past Continuous

Direct: Ram said, “I am reading a book.”
Indirect: Ram said that he was reading a book.

3. Present Perfect to Past Perfect

Direct: The girl said, “I have lost my pen.”
Indirect: The girl said that she had lost her pen.

4. Present Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous

Direct: He said, “Ram has been going.”
Indirect: He said that Ram had been going.

5. Past Indefinite to Past Perfect

Direct: Mother said, “I bought a watch for you.”
Indirect: Mother said that she had bought a watch for him.

6. Past Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous

Direct: Raju said, “I was repairing a car.”
Indirect: Raju said that he had been repairing a car.

7. Future Tense (shall/will) to future in the Past (should/would)

Direct: The teacher said, “I shall give you notes.”
Indirect: The teacher said that he would give them notes.

8. Conditional to Perfect Conditional Direct:

Direct: He said, “If I had the money I could buy the car.”
Indirect: She said that if he had the money he could have bought the car.

9. Past Perfect Tense: No Change

Direct: She said, “I had gone to Bhagalpur.”
Indirect: She said that she had gone to Bhagalpur.

10. Auxiliary Verbs (would, should, might, could, ought, must) — No Change

Direct: He said, “I would like to take milk.”
Indirect: He said that he would like to take milk.
Direct: The boy said, “The teacher could have solved it in no time.”
Indirect: The boy said that the teacher could have solved it in no time.
Direct: He said, “The boy must apologise to the teacher.”
Indirect: He said that the boy must apologise to the teacher.

English Grammar Question Tags Rules

Consider the following examples:

You wanted that, didn’t you?
He is coming tonight, isn’t he?
You wouldn’t report me, would you?

Now, look at the last part of all the above sentences preceded by the comma. These are very small questions added to the sentence and are called question Tags. Remember only the question tag is a question and not the entire sentence. So, one can say that a Question Tag is an added brief question to a statement.

Usually a question tag consists of two words- an auxiliary verb in the positive or negative form and a pronoun.

How to form question tags?

Three things are to be kept in mind while making a question tag:

The right auxiliary Verb to be used in the question.
The right pronouns to be used in the tag.
Whether the verb in the question tag should be positive or negative

Both (1) and (2) should be in agreement with the verb and noun in the main statement.

Rules to form Question Tags

1. If the main statement is positive, the auxiliary verb will be negative and vice versa e.g.,

He saw that, didn’t he ?
But he isn’t going to England, is he ?

2. If there is a single subject/noun/pronoun in the main sentence, the corresponding pronoun/same pronoun will be used in the question tag. e.g.,

You are coming with us, aren’t you ?
Reena is leaving tonight, isn’t she?

3. If there are more than one noun/pronoun in the main sentence then the corresponding pronoun to the active subject will be used in the Question tag. e.g.
After all this time you’d think he’d had forgotten, wouldn’t you?
You wouldn’t refuse me, would you ?
4. If the verb in the main sentence is an active verb without any auxiliary verb, then the verb used in the Question tag will be the form of verb ‘do’ that corresponds with the tense in the main sentence.

He knows it’s true, doesn’t he ?
You wanted to come with me, didn’t you ?
I told you so, didn’t I ?
She never informed us, did she ?

5. If the main sentence has an auxiliary then it is used in the question tag, but with opposite affirmation, i.e., a positive auxiliary in the main sentence transforms to a negative auxiliary in the question tag and vice versa e.g.

He will be coming, won’t he ?
You were there at the party, weren’t you ?
You would appear for this exam, wouldn’tyou?
He didn’t call us, did he ?
She doesn’t live here anymore, does she ?

English Jumbled Sentences Arrangement

The section deals with the questions of Jumbled paragraph and sentences and sentence and phrase arrangement of the given phrases or sentences. The student has to choose a logical sequence to make a meaningful sentence or paragraph. This form of exercise tests the student’s ability to:

Figure out the logic of the events
Sequence different parts of a combination according to correct grammatical usage.

In either sentence or paragraph structuring, the student has to check which part follows the other according to the logical theme of the sentence/paragraph.

Phrase arrangement or Jumbled Sentence.
Sentence arrangement or Jumbled Paragraph.

In a jumbled sentence, a sentence is broken into four parts and the student has to figure out, the right sequence to form a logical, sensible sentence.

Jumbled Sentences Solving Strategies

Consider then following example.

Example 1.

P: by her indulgent parents
Q: the child was so spoiled
R: when she did not receive all of their attention
S: that she pouted and became sullen

RQPS
QRPS
QPSR
QSPR

In this question, a single sentence has been broken into four different parts and the student has to find out the logical sequence of the sentence. In order to do that, consider the following.

Solving Strategy I:

Decide on the opening phrase, first. The opening part of the sentence will usually contain the subject of the sentence. To locate the subject and select that part as the first in sequence. Now, select all options in the answer that begin with part you have chosen as the first.
In example 1, the subject is the child and the opening part will be Q, thus, we can eliminate option (1). Now, since the subject is passive, the verb form will be followed by ‘by’ and the doer. So, find the second part beginning from by and containing the doer of the action which in this case is P. Thus, we can reach the right answer, option (3).

Solving Strategy II:

If the Subject is passive, mostly, the following part will begin with ‘by and contain the doer of the action in the sentence.

Example 2:

Unsurpassed power (P)/modern society (Q)/in (R)/ women enjoy (S)

RQPS
SRPQ
SPRQ
PSRQ

The subject of the sentence is women so the opening part would be S. Thus, we have to choose between options (2) and (3). The subject in this sentence is active. So, we must find the object which will be the next part. In the given question, the object is unsurpassed power. Thus, the answer is (3).

Solving Strategy III:

When the subject is active, follow the sequence- SUBJECT – VERB – OBJECT

Solving Strategy IV:

Preposition is never the last part. If a preposition is given as one of the parts match it with other part to find out what will follow the preposition.
In Example 2 ‘in’ could only be followed by Modern society to the last two parts of the sentence would be (R) and (P).

Example 3:

P: and was at once convinced
Q: he sent a few copies of the book to well known poetry
R: Shaw read the first few lines of the volume
S: and awaited their reaction
T: that what he was reading was real poetry

RPTQS
QSTPR
RSPQT
QPRST

Now, in the given questions there will appear two subjects ‘shaw’ in (R) and ‘he’ in (Q). But he is a pronoun, used to replace the noun, Shaw and thus, will follow the noun in the sentence

Solving Strategy V:

If there are noun and pronoun as subjects in the different parts of a sentence, the part with the noun will be the opening part. Thus in example 3, the opening part is (R), so we have to choose from Option (1) and (3).
Now, we have to figure out the last part of the sentence. Clearly, the given sentence consists of two parts, one with the subject Shaw and other with the subject ‘he’. The part with the subject ‘he’ will follow the other so, the predicate of the phrase with the subject ‘he’ will be the last part of the sentence. Thus, the last past of example III will be (S). The correct answer is (1).

Solving Strategy VI:

Predicate is the last part of the sentence.
Now, let us consider Jumbled Paragraphs.
In this type of question, a paragraph will be broken into four or more parts and the students will be asked to find out the right sequence.

Example 4:

P: In emission testing, the govt. fixes the total amount of pollution that is acceptable to mountain a desired level of air quality.
Q: Economist argue this approach makes air pollution control more cost effective than the current practice of fixing air pollution standards and expecting all companies to pollute below these standards.
R: US A uses emission trading to control air pollution.
S: It, then, distributes emission permits to all companies in the region which add up to the overall acceptable level of emission.

RSQP
PRQS
QPSR
RQPS

Solving Strategy VII:

Find the opening sentence or the concluding sentence.
In Example 4, (R) is the probable opening statement, so we have to choose between (1) and (4).

Solving Strategy VIII:

Sentences with demonstrative pronouns or word like this, that, these or then, moreover, therefore, meanwhile are not opening sentences.
In example 4 we see, Q follows R and S follow P. If (R) is the first statement then Q cannot be the last. Therefore, S is the concluding statement, so the right answer is (4).

Example 5:

P: In his first inaugural address he concluded with an eloquent plea: “Ask not what your country can do you – ask what you can do for your country”.
Q: John F Kennedy, Democratic leader in the elections of 1960 was at 43, the youngest man ever to win the presidency
R: On television, in a series of debates with opponent Richard Nixon, he appeared able, articulate and energetic.
S: In the campaign, he spoke of moving aggressively into the new decade, for “the new Frontier is here whether we seek it or not.”

SPQR
QRSP
RPQS
QPRS

Now, Q will be the opening sentence since all others contain a pronoun and Q contains a noun subject so, we have to choose between (2) & (4).
In (2) R follows Q and in (4) P follows Q but P appears to be a concluding sentence hence, (2) is the right answer.

Types of Jumbled Paragraphs

4 Sentences Paragraphs

In this the jumbled paragraph consists of 4 sentences which have to be put in correct order.

Example 6:

P: Even more complex life can adapt to hostile places.
Q: We know that a functioning ecosystem does not require sunlight or photosynthesis.
R: When scientists in the deep sea submarine went tooling around the mid-ocean ridges, they found hot vents covered with shrimps and countless tube worms.
S: In the early 1990s, researches found that the basaltic rock deep beneath Washington state contains an abundance of microbes totally cut off from the photosynthetic world.

QSPR
PRSQ
QRPS
PQSR

It is clear that (R) is an example of idea expressed in (P) and (S) is an example of an idea expressed in (Q), so, R will follow (P) and (s) will follow (Q). Thus, sequence is only part (1). Thus, it is the right answer.

Solving Strategy I:

Examples always follow the idea.

5 Sentences Paragraphs

This type of jumbled paragraph question is same as the previous one only the paragraph is divided into 5 sentences instead of 4.

Example 7:

P: Michal Hofman, a poet and translator, accepts this very fact without approval.
Q: But thanklessness and impossibility do not daunt him.
R: He acknowledge too infact, he returns to the point often the best translators of poetry always fail at some level.
S: Hofman feels passionately about his work and this is clear from his writing.
T: In terms of gap between worth and rewards, translators come somewhere near nurses & objects.

TPRSQ
TPRQS
PSTQR
SRTPQ

T is the introductory statement of the paragraph in example 7 so, we have a choice between (1) and (2). The rest of the pattern is same in both the options only the concluding line is different. Q will not be the concluding sentence since, it begins with a conjunction ‘but’ which follows the previous statement R. There is no possibility of the conjuction ‘but’ after (S) and hence, (S) will be the concluding statement. Thus, the right answer is (2).

Example 8:

P: In a number of cases, the drivers have refused to carry passengers according to the meter reading dispite its being in working condition.
Q: For instance, according to a complaint, the driver of an auto rickshaw not only misbehaved but also ran away with Rs. 500 from Dhaula Kuan on Dec.13
R: Refusal to carry commuters to their respective destination is another common complaint which has been lodged with call centres.
S: What have been the most shocking are the complaints about misbehaviour by the rickshaw drivers with the passengers
T: Similarly, another driver ran away with the luggage of the passenger on the Karol-Bagh-Pachim Vihar route.

SPRQT
SRQPT
PRSQT
PQRST

Following the strategy, Q is an example for (S) and thus, will follow it, (T) is also another example for S and thus, will follow Q. So, the sequence SQT should appear in the paragraph. Also examples are usually towards the end and not in the beginning. Thus, sequence is given only in option (c). Thus (c) is the right answer.

6 Sentences Paragraphs

In this type of jumbled paragraph question, there are six sentences. However, not all six of them are jumbled, the first and the last sentence of the paragraph are given but the included four sentences are jumbled. It is the sequence of these four sentences that the student has to find.

Example 9:

1. The list of horror goes on
A. And one in every five is malnourished.
B. This is because local clinics, ill equipped to deal with even small things, ethics don’t work or simply don’t exist.
C. Nobody has been able to figure out a way to reduce the speed that is at the root of India’s over-population problems: a body born every second.
D. There is such a shortage of treatment centres that premier hospitals are chocked with patients who show up to treat their coughs and cold
6. Kalyan Banerjee, a consultant at the hospital is worried

DACB
CDAB
DBAC
CADB

Solving Strategy II:

For a six sentence question try to find out a link between the first fixed given sentence and any of the four jumbled sentences, that could follow it.
In Example 9, A and B can’t follow (1) because they begin with conjunction while (1) ended without a possibility of a conjunction (3) appears to be the logical sentence following (1). (A) follows (C) and (B) follows (D). Thus, the sequence will be 1CABD6, that is the option (4).

Solving Strategy III:

If you cannot find a link between the first fixed sentence and the jumbled sentence, find a link between the last fixed sentence and a sentence from the jumbled ones that may proceed it.

Example 10:

1. As an economy expands, so does the need for cash or fuel growth.
A. An important one is a rule insisting that any purchase of share amounting to 20% or more of the listed stock of a company has to be announced before the purchase goes ahead.
B. It also has computerised trading and a whole host of new regulations.
C. Today the exchange has an impressive new home or the city’s major business artery.
D. Pushed by the govt. deregulations, the Jakarata stock exchange is beginning to come of age after emerging from dormancy only 8 yrs. ago.
6. Thus, new ruling plus many other improvements to protect investors have helped boost confidence in the market.

DCBA
ABCD
CDAB
DCAB

Now, we can easily see the link between the concluding fixed line 2 and A-the rule. Thus, the last part before (2) should be A. Thus, sequence is available only in option (1) which will be the right answer.
B elaborates the exchange which was already mentioned in C and therefore, must follow (C).
So, 1DCBA6 is the correct sequence.

Solving Strategy IV:

If you are unable to find links with either of the fixed sentence, use the previous strategies to find links between the jumbled sentence and check out the sequence in the given options.

Angad ji

Translate

Tuesday, March 11, 2025

Book

Sunday, July 8, 2018

English Grammar

English Grammar Noun Rules

Tell which sentence is correct?

1. Which sentence is correct?

2. Which sentence is correct?

3. Which sentence is correct?

4. Which sentence is correct?

Following are rules regarding gender of the noun:

Rules regarding apostrophe S (’s)

1. Singular noun: ’s is added after the word.

2. Singular noun: Only an apostrophe is added when there are too many hissing sounds.

3. Plural nouns ending in s like boys, cows: only’ is added after the word

4. Plural nouns not ending in s like men, children: ’s is added after the word.

5. ’S is added primarily after the living things and personified objects.

6. ’S is not used with inanimate or non-living things.

7. But nouns that denote time, distance or weight, ’s is used.

8. Some other common phrases where ’s is used are to his heart’s content, at his wit’s end, for goodness’ sake, out of harm’s way.

9. When a noun consists of several words, the possessive sign is attached only to the last word.

10. When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

11. When two or more nouns show joint possession, the possessive sign is put to the latter only.

12. When two or more nouns show separate possession, the possessive sign is put with both.

English Grammar Pronoun Rules

Pronouns in sentences found by conjunction

When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, the pronoun used for them must be plural.

When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’, then the pronoun must be singular

When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘or’, ‘either…or’, ‘neither…nor’, the pronoun is generally singular.

When a plural and a singular noun are joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, the pronoun must be in the plural

When two things which have been already mentioned are referred to, ‘this’ refers to the thing last mentioned and ‘that to the thing first mentioned.

Rules regarding personal pronouns

When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronouns of different persons, it must be of the first person plural in preference to the second and of the second person plural in preference to the third.

Each, either and neither are always singular and are followed by the verb in the singular

An apostrophe is never used in ‘its’, ‘yours’ and ‘theirs’.

The complement of the verb be, when it is expressed by a pronoun should be in the nominative form.

The case of a pronoun following than or as is determined by mentally supplying the verb.

A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender.

Rules regarding demonstrative pronouns

Uses of THAT

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree.

2. After the words all, same, any, none, nothing, only.

3. After two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other denoting an animal or a thing.

What and That refer to persons as well as things.

Rules regarding relative pronouns

Who is used for persons only. It may refer to a singular or plural noun.

Whose can be used for persons as well as things without life also.

Which is used for inanimate things and animals. Which is used for both singular as well as plural noun.

When ‘which’ is used for selection, it may refer to a person as well as things.

Who, Which, Whom, That, Whose should be placed as near to the antecedent as possible.

Who is used In the nominative cases and whom in the objective cases.

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree in number and person with the antecedent of the relative.

Other useful rules

None is used in the singular or plural as the sense may require.

When ‘one’ is used as pronoun, its possessive form ‘one’s’ should follow instead of his, her etc.

With let objective case of the pronoun is used.

If a pronoun has two antecedents, it should agree with the nearer one.

In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone, each etc., the pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context.

The pronoun one should be used throughout, if used at all.

Plural is commonly used with none.

Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.

English Grammar Adjective Rules

Rules Regarding Demonstrative Adjective

Rules regarding Distributive Adjectives

Rules Regarding Adjectives of Quantity

Rules Regarding Interrogative Adjectives

Rules Regarding Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives

Other Common Rules

Other Common Errors

English Grammar Verb Rules

Important Rules

Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘and’ usually take a verb in the plural.

If two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular.

If two subjects together express one idea, the verb may be in the singular.

Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’, either… or, neither…nor take a verb in the singular.

When words are joined to a singular subject by ‘with’, ‘together with’, ‘in addition to’, ‘as well as’, then also number of the verb remains singular.

Following examples exemplify the common mistakes committed

The verb lay (lay, laid, laid) is transitive and is always followed by an object. The-: verb lie (lie, lay, Lain) is intransitive and cannot have an object.

Agreement of the subject with the verb

***Each, either* and *neither*** are always singular and are followed by the verb in the singular